# publications

authors: LaMalfa Kayleigh, Pizzagalli Diego A., Bergman Jack, Thomas Christopher W., Kangas Brian
journal: The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics
publication_date: 2026-04-30
doi: 10.1016/j.jpet.2026.104267
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpet.2026.104267
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
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title:
Prohedonic Effects of Psilocybin (COMP360) in a Touchscreen-Based Rodent Probabilistic Reward Task (Abstract ID: 227883)


title: Psilocybin as an alternative to conventional treatments: A systematic review
authors: Cahuasqui-Mendoza Deivid Antonio
journal: Gaceta Médica de Caracas
publication_date: 2026-04-21
doi: 10.47307/gmc.2026.134.s2.32
source_url: https://doi.org/10.47307/gmc.2026.134.s2.32
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,Anxiety,Neuroplasticity,Clinical Trial,Systematic Review,Review Article,Safety
study_type: Systematic Review
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.47307/gmc.2026.134.s2.32","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
abstract:
Introduction. Limitations of conventional treatments for depression and anxiety, particularly in treatment-resistant cases, have driven interest in alternative therapeutic approaches. Psilocybin, a serotonergic agonist with demonstrated effects on neuroplasticity and large-scale brain networks, has emerged as a promising therapeutic option. Materials and methods: A systematic review of controlled clinical trials published between 2020 and 2025 was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. Searches were performed in PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library. Eligible studies included adults aged 18-65 years with DSM-5 diagnoses of depression and/or anxiety who received psilocybin-assisted therapy with psychotherapeutic support. Risk of bias was assessed using RoB 2, the Jadad scale, and the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. Due to methodological heterogeneity, a qualitative narrative synthesis was performed.


journal: Journal of Psychedelic Studies
publication_date: 2026-04-14
doi: 10.1556/2054.2026.00519
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2026.00519
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Addiction,Personality Change,Spirituality,Observational Study
study_type: Observational Study
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
Psilocybin use in Puerto Rico: Patterns, motivations, and personality correlates from an online survey

authors:
Vélez Rodríguez Jean C., Duquesne-Maldonado Yanice, Hernández Torres Julián M., Da'Luz Sant'Ana Istoni, Nazario Cruz M.

abstract:
Abstract Background and aims Psilocybin, a psychoactive compound found in fungi commonly referred to as “magic mushrooms,” is consumed for both spiritual and recreational purposes. However, psilocybin use in Puerto Rico remains understudied. This exploratory cross-sectional survey aimed to describe patterns of use, motivations for consumption, explanatory factors, personality traits, and sex-gender differences associated with psilocybin use in a convenience sample of adults residing in Puerto Rico. Methods The study recruited 343 respondents through internet-based advertisements to complete an online survey, which included demographic variables, patterns of psilocybin consumption, polysubstance use and the Ten-Item Personality Inventory (TIPI-SPA). Logistic regression models were used to identify significant explanatory factors. Results Within this convenience sample, 52.6% of participants reported lifetime psilocybin use; this figure reflects the recruited sample and should not be interpreted as a population prevalence estimate. Participants largely believed that magic mushrooms were non-addictive (61%) and safe (57%). Curiosity was the primary motivation for use (43%), and most participants reported pleasant or very pleasant experiences (88%). Significant explanatory factors of psilocybin consumption included identifying as male (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 6.2; 95% CI: 2.81-14.49), identifying as bisexual (aOR = 3.14; 95% CI: 1.14-9.14), identifying as gay (aOR = 0.14; 95% CI: 0.03-0.54), identifying as non-heterosexual identities (aOR = 4.33; 95% CI: 1.27-16.38), identifying as non-Christian (aOR = 3.76; 95% CI: 1.77-8.37), openness (aOR = 2.09; 95% CI: 1.49-3.0) and agreeableness (aOR = 1.75; 95% CI: 1.20-2.63). Conclusion This exploratory study describes psilocybin use in a convenience sample of adults in Puerto Rico by sociodemographic characteristics, patterns of consumption, sex-gender identity, and personality traits. Findings are preliminary and warrant replication using probability-based sampling designs.

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title: Psilocybin for Treatment of Prolonged Grief Disorder: An Open-Label Feasibility Study Protocol
journal: Psychoactives
publication_date: 2026-04-12
doi: 10.3390/psychoactives5020012
source_url: https://doi.org/10.3390/psychoactives5020012
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Brain Imaging,Randomized Controlled Trial,Safety
study_type: Randomized Controlled Trial
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
authors:
Penberthy J. Kim, A. Wise Fatma, Cherup Nicholas, Penberthy J. Morgan, Mitchell Evaline, Burns Madeline, Akinlade Oluwafunmilayo, Chung David, Parmar Harshit, Singer Jonathan

abstract:
Prolonged grief disorder (PGD) affects approximately 10% of bereaved individuals and is now formally recognized in both the DSM-5-TR and ICD-11. Despite its prevalence, PGD often responds poorly to traditional therapeutic approaches. This manuscript outlines the protocol for an early-stage open-label feasibility trial investigating the use of psilocybin, a psychedelic compound, in treating PGD in adults, with a focus on young adults. The study will involve 20 participants diagnosed with PGD. Each participant will undergo a structured therapeutic process that includes a preparatory session, a single 25 mg dose of psilocybin, and post-session integration. Throughout the study, participants will be monitored via symptom assessments, including qualitative and quantitative data, with the main aims related to safety, feasibility and acceptability. Functional MRIs will be obtained pre- and post-dosing and collected during a standardized grief-elicitation methodology. Key outcome measures include changes in the severity of PGD and trauma symptoms, cognitive flexibility, openness to experience, meaning in life and subjective experiences during the psilocybin session. Neural activity will also be evaluated through fMRI to better understand the neurobiological effects of the treatment. This research represents one of the first clinical protocols specifically focused on the potential of psilocybin for treating PGD. The goal is to assess feasibility and safety while laying the groundwork for future randomized controlled trials.

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journal: Nature Mental Health
publication_date: 2026-04-05
doi: 10.1038/s44220-026-00630-8
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1038/s44220-026-00630-8
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,Randomized Controlled Trial,Meta-Analysis,Systematic Review,Review Article
study_type: Randomized Controlled Trial
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
A living systematic review, meta-analysis and open-data resource of randomized controlled trials of psilocybin treatment for symptoms of depression

authors:
Singleton S. Parker, Sevchik Brooke L., Lahey Analiese, Cuijpers Pim, Harrer Mathias, Jones Megan T., Nayak Sandeep M., Strain Eric C., Vandekar Simon N., Dworkin Robert H., Scott J. Cobb, Satterthwaite Theodore D.

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authors: Meshkat Shakila, Jha Manish K., Bhat Venkat
journal: Focus
publication_date: 2026-03-31
doi: 10.1176/appi.focus.20250043
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.focus.20250043
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Mechanism of Action
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
Therapeutic Potential of Psilocybin in Psychiatric Disorders: Mechanisms, Efficacy, and Clinical Implications

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title: Psilocybin: Wirksam, aber kein Wundermittel.
authors: Pichler H.
publication_date: 2026-03-31
doi: 10.1007/s15006-026-5871-5
pubmed_id: 41917578
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1007/s15006-026-5871-5
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:01
raw_json:
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authors: Komarczewska Anna, Kociński Michał, Iglewski Patryk, Pietrasz Michał, Idziński Jakub, Lubomska Anna
journal: International Journal of Innovative Technologies in Social Science
publication_date: 2026-03-18
doi: 10.31435/ijitss.1(49).2026.5034
source_url: https://doi.org/10.31435/ijitss.1(49).2026.5034
substance_tags: psilocybin
study_type: Randomized Controlled Trial
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
PSILOCYBIN AS AN ADJUNCTIVE TREATMENT FOR DEPRESSION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS IN ONCOLOGY: CURRENT EVIDENCE AND CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

abstract:
Depression and psychological distress are highly prevalent among patients with cancer and are associated with impaired quality of life, reduced treatment adherence, and poorer clinical outcomes. Standard pharmacological and psychosocial interventions often demonstrate limited efficacy or delayed onset of action in oncological and palliative settings. Psilocybin-assisted therapy has recently emerged as a potential adjunctive approach for the treatment of depression, anxiety, and existential distress in patients with life-threatening cancer. This narrative review synthesizes current clinical and neurobiological evidence regarding the use of psilocybin as an adjunctive treatment in oncology. Randomized controlled trials, systematic reviews, and case reports indicate that psilocybin administered within a structured psychotherapeutic framework may produce rapid and sustained reductions in depressive symptoms and anxiety, including improvements in existential well-being. Mechanistic findings suggest involvement of serotonergic 5-HT2A receptor activation, large-scale brain network modulation, and enhanced neuroplasticity. When applied in controlled clinical settings with appropriate screening and psychological support, psilocybin demonstrates a favorable safety profile. Although current evidence is promising, limitations related to sample size and methodological heterogeneity require cautious interpretation. Further well-designed trials are necessary to determine long-term efficacy and optimal integration into comprehensive cancer and palliative care.

topic_tags:
Depression,Anxiety,End-of-Life Distress,Neuroplasticity,Receptor Pharmacology,Wellbeing,Randomized Controlled Trial,Systematic Review,Review Article,Case Report,Cancer Patients,Safety

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title: Raman Activity Investigation and Utilization of Psilocybin
authors: Sun Mingyu, Zhao Xiaoyu, Kong Fandi, Wang Jinsong, Lu Yunchang, Tong Liang
journal: Journal of Raman Spectroscopy
publication_date: 2026-03-18
doi: 10.1002/jrs.70133
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.70133
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Safety
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
abstract:
ABSTRACT Accidental ingestion of psilocybin-containing mushrooms can cause poisoning and hallucinations, making their rapid detection a public health priority. Conventional methods such as HPLC, GC-MS, LC-MS, TLC, CE, and ELISA provide sensitivity but are often destructive, time-consuming, or impractical for real-time applications. This study introduces a Raman spectroscopy-based approach for rapid, nondestructive identification of psilocybin. The molecular geometry of psilocybin was optimized using density functional theory (B3LYP/6-31G(d,p)), and theoretical Raman spectra were generated to assign characteristic vibrational peaks, confirming its Raman activity. Experimental spectra of fresh and heat-treated Psilocybe cubensis mushroom samples were collected, with peak alignment demonstrating good agreement with theoretical predictions, thus establishing psilocybin fingerprint features. For classification, raw and preprocessed spectra (MSC, SNV, 1st-D, detrending) were evaluated. Among feature extraction methods (PCA, SPA, UVE, CARS), CARS yielded the most discriminative variables. An XGBoost model was developed and optimized via Bayesian tuning, while SMOTE addressed class imbalance. Furthermore, psilocybin fingerprint features were fused with CARS features to enhance interpretability and model robustness. Finally, a Bagging framework integrating XGBoost, KNN, SVM, and Decision Tree was implemented to improve generalization and noise resistance. The final Bagging-based model achieved high performance (accuracy 0.984, F1-score 0.984, ROC AUC0.976), with strong stability under storage conditions. Overall, this study elucidates psilocybin's Raman spectral characteristics and establishes a machine learning-assisted detection model. The approach enables rapid, accurate, cost-effective, and contamination-free identification of psilocybin, with potential applications in food safety monitoring and on-site toxic mushroom screening.

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title: Explainable AI framework for psilocybin depression treatment optimization
authors: Sungheetha Akey, Rajesh Sharma R., Aroba Oluwasegun Julius, Mahapatra Sheila, Mahendhiran P. D.
journal: Frontiers in Computer Science
publication_date: 2026-03-15
doi: 10.3389/fcomp.2025.1652190
source_url: https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomp.2025.1652190
substance_tags: psilocybin
study_type: Randomized Controlled Trial
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
abstract:
Introduction This computational modeling study introduces a novel Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) framework for optimizing single-dose psilocybin treatment protocols through personalized intervention modeling using publicly available mental health datasets. All results presented are derived from novel simulated data and predictive modeling only, not from real-time clinical implementations or actual patient treatments. Methods The mathematical optimization model integrates digital twin technologies, multimodal depression detection systems, and Bayesian optimization algorithms to create comprehensive computational patient profiles with temporal resolution processing capabilities at 250 Hz sampling frequency. Validation employed three publicly available datasets: (1) the Psilocybin Precision Functional Mapping dataset from OpenNeuro containing neuroimaging data from 7 participants, (2) the MODMA multimodal mental disorder dataset with 53 participants including electroencephalography and audio signals, and (3) a meta-analytic psilocybin therapy outcomes dataset containing aggregated results from 10 clinical trials. The framework incorporates pharmacokinetic modeling with an absorption rate constant of 0.45 per hour and an elimination rate constant of 0.23 per hour, receptor occupancy dynamics based on a dissociation constant of 6.3 nanomolar, and simulated real-time monitoring protocols processing physiological parameters including heart rate variability, blood pressure measurements, and cortisol levels at a 1 Hz frequency. Results The simulated computational model demonstrates significant improvements in prediction accuracy, reaching 94.7%, and therapeutic transparency, achieving 89.3% explainability scores. Simulated validation demonstrates computational precision of 92.8% in predicting treatment response patterns across diverse patient populations in silico. The proposed computational methodology addresses key challenges in psychedelic-assisted therapy modeling through interpretable artificial intelligence models, achieving 96.2% computational safety index scores and 91.5% algorithmic compliance metrics in simulation environments. Energy-efficient computational architecture achieves 73.4% carbon footprint reduction through optimized algorithm design and sparse matrix representations. Discussion This study presents a theoretical computational framework for modeling therapeutic outcomes through simulation and prediction, establishing a foundation for future clinical validation through prospective randomized controlled trials. The framework supports sustainable digital mental healthcare delivery systems compatible with renewable energy infrastructure. All findings represent computational predictions and simulated scenarios requiring extensive clinical validation before any practical application.

topic_tags:
Depression,Brain Imaging,Pharmacology,Receptor Pharmacology,Aging,Clinical Trial,Randomized Controlled Trial,Safety

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authors: Rebecchi Kevin
journal: Journal of Psychedelic Studies
publication_date: 2026-03-08
doi: 10.1556/2054.2025.00320
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2025.00320
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Neuroplasticity,Aging,Case Report
study_type: Case Report
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
“Diversity makes the richness of humanity”: The emergence and persistence of mental imagery after self-reported psilocybin truffles intake in an autistic woman with “blind imagination” (aphantasia): A33-month retrospective case report

abstract:
Abstract This 33-month retrospective case report explores the impact of psilocybin truffle intake on the emergence (and persistence) of mental imagery in an autistic woman with aphantasia. Aphantasia refers to the inability to generate visual mental images, which can significantly affect individuals' experiences and cognitive processes. The case study focuses on a 34-year-old autistic woman who had been living with aphantasia since childhood. After consuming psilocybin truffles, she reported experiencing vivid mental imagery for the first time, with the ability to manipulate and explore images in her mind. The effects persisted even after the psychedelic effects of psilocybin subsided. To document this change, she completed the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire at several timepoints. Retrospectively, she reported a baseline score of 16 (pre-intake) and a post-intake score of 80. A contemporaneous follow-up conducted 12 months later revealed a score of 59, and a subsequent assessment at 33 months showed a further increase to 68, slightly above the population average. The findings align with previous research on the effects of psilocybin on brain connectivity, neuroplasticity, and visual processing. The case report highlights the potential of psilocybin to modulate mental imagery in individuals with (putatively congenital) aphantasia and suggests avenues for further research. Moreover, it raises questions about the classification and pathologization of aphantasia, encouraging a shift toward recognizing cognitive diversity rather than pathologizing neurocognitive differences.

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title: Behavioural investigations of psilocybin in non-human animals 1962-2021: A scoping review
journal: Journal of Psychedelic Studies
publication_date: 2026-03-08
doi: 10.1556/2054.2025.00364
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2025.00364
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Mechanism of Action,Review Article,Safety,Adverse Events,Toxicity
study_type: Review Article
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
authors:
Shore Ronald, Dobson Kat, Thomson Nina, Barnim Nigel, Bergman Hailey, Rideout Katie, McKeown Sandra, Olmstead Mary C., Goldie Craig, Dumont Eric

abstract:
Abstract Background and Aims Psilocybin is a psychedelic compound that may hold promise for a wide range of human health conditions, yet the identification of therapeutic processes and mechanisms of action remains exploratory. We conducted a scoping review of pre-clinical behavioural investigations of psilocybin in non-human animals to identify behavioural effects, studies completed, behavioural tests employed, and what dosing modalities had been studied. Methods A librarian-conducted literature search was performed using predefined key terms and search criteria and additional searching was conducted by reviewers using electronic databases, grey literature sources, and reference lists of relevant articles or reviews. The final search updated occurred in October, 2021. Studies were reviewed, screened and selected against an a priori protocol using Covidence software by multiple reviewers with results plotted across the Research Domains Criteria construct. Results From 4,124 records identified by database searching, 260 publications were subjected to full-text review with 77 studies included in this scoping review, published between 1962 and 2021. The preponderance of studies ( n = 64) investigated behavioural outcomes in rodents. Only 43 studies (55.8%) reported on housing conditions, and seventeen studies (22.1%) failed to report sample size. All studies reported behavioural outcomes following drug administration, with fifty-one studies (66.2%) using psilocybin, thirty studies (42.9%) psilocin, four studies (5.2%) administering whole mushroom extracts (WME), and a further eight studies investigating both psilocybin and psilocin and one study reporting the effects of both psilocin and WME. One hundred and thirty distinct behavioural investigations using fifty different behavioral paradigms were identified. Few adverse events were reported, and even exceedingly high doses were apparently well tolerated. Conclusion With seventy-seven publications spanning close to sixty years, there is significant variation in study design and quality. Overall, psilocybin presents a unique and strong safety profile with no found evidence of biological toxicity. Psilocybin treatment was characterized by unique time and dose-dependent effects; pattern of drug action appears significantly context and training-sensitive. Data suggest effects of psilocybin to include acute arousal, dose-dependent sedation, reductions in fear conditioning at low doses, reduced aggression, improved valence, acute disruption of working memory, the rescuing of deficits from chronic stress, and improved learning when combined with repeated environmental exposure after resolution of drug effect.

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authors: Wrathall David J., Gosnell Hannah, Wickson Fern, Spanger Erika, Associates*
journal: Action Research
publication_date: 2026-02-28
doi: 10.1177/14767503251404263
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1177/14767503251404263
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Anxiety,Mechanism of Action,Resilience,Creativity
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
Journeying into Right Relations: Scientists Turn to Psilocybin to Shift Psychological Burdens of Global Environmental Change and Find Transformational Pathways Forward

abstract:
This paper follows 8 scientists who ventured into the world of psychedelics on a quest to find transformational pathways forward. Each have worked on aspects of global environmental change for decades, and observing environmental crises converging into a global polycrisis/metacrisis with genuine potential for collapse, we have all carried psychological burdens, including fatigue, anxiety, grief, and hopelessness. Psilocybin offers potential for alleviating and transforming these burdens, and for shining light towards creative ways forward. Through professional connections and quiet conversations, we came together to conduct a participatory self-study to directly explore this potential. The study was conducted in Oregon, which offers a legal framework for the administration of psilocybin. We embarked with thoughtful preparation, group intention setting, and integration protocols. This paper recounts our journey together, including vignettes of our experiences; a preliminary synthesis of learnings; and a glimpse of insights that continue today. We emerged with a powerful, common insight: it is impossible to learn “right relations” outside of relationship, and that righting of relations for our transformed, collective future is an act of love. We tell our story in the hope of enlivening conversations, actions, and further investigation of psychedelic-assisted approaches for fostering resilience and realizing transformative change.

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title: Effects of Psilocybin and Select Pharmaceutical Interactions
journal: MacEwan University Student eJournal
publication_date: 2026-02-17
doi: 10.31542/bcek6t76
source_url: https://doi.org/10.31542/bcek6t76
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Receptor Pharmacology,Aging,Older Adults,Drug Interactions
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.31542/bcek6t76","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
authors:
McDowell Jordan, Middleton Jada, Bluett Alanna, Kozachenko Alisa, Attar Bayan, Saini Yuvraj, Burke Jennifer, McPhee Cayden, Mutahera Mutahera, Ahmed Talya, Ibrahim Nabila, Atukwatsibwe Gilbert, Adhikari Sulabha, Esmaili Mohammad, Yambayamba Jean-Vital

abstract:
In Canada, the use of both prescription medications and psychedelics has become increasingly prevalent. As of 2022, approximately 16.5% of Canadians-about 6.3 million individuals-were prescribed at least one antidepressant, with fluoxetine remaining one of the most commonly used options (IQVIA, 2023). Benzodiazepine use, including drugs like alprazolam, ranges between 5% to 10% nationwide, with notably higher usage (15-20%) among older adults aged 65 and over (Davies et al., 2017). Psilocybin use, while less common, has shown steady presence in the population; in 2019, years hallucinogens such as psilocybin, LSD, and PCP were used by approximately 2% of Canadians-equating to roughly 587,000 people- and by approximately 6% of young adults aged 20 to 24 (Health Canada, 2023). Based on the statistical overlap between antidepressant and psychedelic users, it is estimated that over 126,000 Canadians may be experiencing interactions between these drug classes, a number that is expected to grow as both psychedelic therapy and recreational use become more culturally accepted. We investigated the chemical, physical, and psychological effects of psilocybin, fluoxetine, and alprazolam and their interactions with each other. In clinical contexts, benzodiazepines like midazolam are sometimes used to manage overwhelming psychedelic experiences, offering a pharmacological baseline for understanding how sedatives may interact with psilocybin. When taken concurrently, fluoxetine appears to attenuate the mind-altering effects typically induced by psilocybin, likely due to its modulation of serotonin receptor activity. This dampening effect suggests a pharmacological counteraction between the two substances. There is little direct research on the interaction between psilocybin and alprazolam, but from what is indicated, they may exhibit small interactive effects. Understanding these interactions may provide insight into more accurate harm-reduction strategies and clinical decision-making.


title: Low-income group psilocybin assisted therapy for depression: An Oregon feasibility study
authors: Hicks Matthew, Hicks Olivia, Bradley Ryan, Zwickey Heather
journal: Journal of Psychedelic Studies
publication_date: 2026-02-11
doi: 10.1556/2054.2026.00485
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2026.00485
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,Observational Study,Adverse Events
study_type: Observational Study
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
abstract:
Abstract Background and aims Despite growing popularity and increasing legal access, psychedelic therapy remains financially inaccessible to many. This study was designed to test the feasibility of conducting group psilocybin therapy in low-income adults with depression in Oregon's regulated psilocybin program. Methods An open label, uncontrolled design was used. After a medical screening visit, participants were enrolled in cohorts of six. Each cohort participated in two 90-min preparation sessions conducted online followed by two psilocybin administration sessions one week apart where they consumed dehydrated and homogenized whole mushrooms, Psilocybe cubensis (B+ strain) prepared in a tea. Two days after each psilocybin administration they had an online, 90-min integration session. Results We recruited 26 eligible participants, 20 of whom began treatment and 19 completed. No severe adverse events were reported, and participants rated their satisfaction, on average, as 4.8 out of 5, reporting moderate to high benefit and no harm. Exploratory outcomes include Hamilton Depression scores which demonstrated a significant decrease ( t = 8.24, p < 0.001) in a paired t -test and a strong effect size (Cohen's d = 1.89). For the same time periods all eight domains of the PROMIS-29 were significantly improved on paired t -tests at p <.01 with effect sizes ranging from 0.667 to 1.774. Conclusions The study demonstrates the feasibility of group psilocybin therapy in a low-income population with depression. Further research with rigorous comparator groups is warranted to assess if this intervention can be both effective and cost-effective.

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authors: Gregersen Anton T., Whelan Tobias, Golden Caroline, Blackmore Thomas, Palner Mikael
journal: Psychedelic Medicine
publication_date: 2026-02-02
doi: 10.1177/28314425251386879
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1177/28314425251386879
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Drug Interactions
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
Computational Analysis of Psilocybin Effects on Three-Choice Touchscreen Reversal Learning in Rats: A Pilot Study

abstract:
Introduction: Cognitive flexibility is essential for behavioral adaptation in response to environmental changes and is impaired in various neuropsychiatric disorders. The serotonergic psychedelic psilocybin has shown potential in enhancing cognitive flexibility, although with mixed results. In this study, we investigated the effects of psilocybin on cognitive flexibility in rats using a three-choice visual reversal learning task. Methods: Sixteen Long-Evans rats were trained on a three-choice touchscreen-based reversal learning task. Following training and initial reversal testing, psilocybin (1 mg/kg, subcutaneous) or saline was administered in a crossover design. Behavioral performance was assessed through recording the time to achieve learning criteria, reaction times, and interaction patterns with image choices, focusing on short-term effects (days after administration during the crossover interventions) and trends over subsequent reversals (weeks). Using computational reinforcement learning models, we analyzed development in latent cognitive parameters, such as learning rate and value sensitivity. Results: Five rats successfully completed all six reversal learning protocols, demonstrating significant learning and unlearning dynamics. The number of sessions to attain learning criteria and the reaction time for the touchscreen decreased significantly across protocols. Psilocybin administration impaired the rate of learning and unlearning across sessions during the first postdrug reversal. Computational modeling identified low learning rates, with no significant differences between psilocybin and placebo conditions on any parameters. However, exploratory analysis revealed enhanced rates of learning and unlearning over the session in the second postdrug reversal compared with baseline. Conclusions: Only a subset (31%) of rats effectively engaged in this complex three-choice visual reversal learning task, thereby demonstrating learning and unlearning over time. Psilocybin impaired short-term performance in learning and unlearning speeds, whereas exploratory findings suggested possible long-term enhancements in learning dynamics. Results show a nuanced effect of psilocybin on cognitive flexibility, with potential relevance for its interventional use in neuropsychiatric disorders. Further research should explore long-term outcomes and refine computational models for complex tasks.

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authors: Shadani Sheida, Greaves Erika, Andrews Zane B., Foldi Claire J.
journal: Psychedelics
publication_date: 2026-02-02
doi: 10.61373/pp026a.0003
source_url: https://doi.org/10.61373/pp026a.0003
substance_tags: psilocybin
study_type: Animal Study
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
Psilocybin exerts differential effects on social behavior and inflammation in mice in contexts of activity-based anorexia

abstract:
Psychedelics, particularly psilocybin, have shown therapeutic potential across several psychiatric conditions, including depression, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and anorexia nervosa (AN). These disorders often share social deficits that may be effectively alleviated by psychedelics considering their use has been linked with emotional empathy and enhanced social cognition. However, the mechanisms through which psychedelics alter social behavior are unclear, and mechanistic studies in animal models have largely focused on male subjects. This is problematic for understanding the therapeutic effects relevant for disorders that predominantly affect females, such as AN. Here, we used the activity-based anorexia (ABA) mouse model to characterize their social behavior compared to mice exposed to food restriction (FR), running wheels (RW) or standard housing (Controls) in female mice. Together with these metabolic stressors, we also investigated the effects of psilocybin on the circulating proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6), which is implicated in AN and is suppressed by psychedelics. Psilocybin did not alter sociability in ABA, RW, or FR mice but increased preference for social familiarity (reduced novelty-seeking) in Controls. Novelty-seeking behavior was elevated in both ABA and RW groups, although with distinct social patterns. Psilocybin elevated IL-6 levels in RW mice, which was positively correlated with preference for novelty. No such relationships were found in ABA or FR groups. These findings reveal subtle, context-dependent effects of psilocybin on social behavior and inflammation in female mice, advancing our understanding of how ABA and exercise influence social behavior and inflammatory signaling. They underscore the need to clarify the temporal, neuroplastic, and immune-related mechanisms of psilocybin across sexes and disease models.

topic_tags:
Depression,Anxiety,OCD,Eating Disorders,Mechanism of Action,Emotional Processing,Animal Study,Inflammation,Immune Function

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journal: Professional Psychology: Research and Practice
publication_date: 2026-01-31
doi: 10.1037/pro0000664
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1037/pro0000664
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1037/pro0000664","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
Attitudes and perceptions of Portuguese mental health professionals on the therapeutic use of psilocybin and methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA).

authors:
Encantado Jorge, Carvalho Laura C., Mota Pedro, Cunha Catarina, Garcia-Romeu Albert, Johnson Matthew W., Teixeira Pedro J.


title: Ketamine and psilocybin for athletes: A therapeutic breakthrough or a slippery slope?
authors: Zandonai Thomas, Venturini Sofia, Corazza Ornella
journal: Performance Enhancement &amp; Health
publication_date: 2026-01-31
doi: 10.1016/j.peh.2025.100386
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2025.100386
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
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title: Psilocybin-Induced Neuroplasticity and Sustained Antidepressant Effects
journal: Quality in Sport
publication_date: 2026-01-30
doi: 10.12775/qs.2026.51.68216
source_url: https://doi.org/10.12775/qs.2026.51.68216
substance_tags: psilocybin
study_type: Meta-Analysis
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.12775/qs.2026.51.68216","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
authors:
Komarczewska Anna Maria, Matusiak Filip, Brzoza Klaudia, Kociński Michał, Iglewski Patryk, Pietrasz Michał

abstract:
Psilocybin-assisted interventions have shown rapid reductions in depressive symptoms in controlled clinical settings, raising questions about biological mechanisms supporting durability beyond the acute drug effect. [5,7] Mechanistic accounts increasingly focus on neuroplasticity as a candidate pathway linking transient serotonergic receptor activation to longer-lasting psychological and clinical change. [2,6] To synthesize evidence from the publications regarding (1) antidepressant clinical outcomes after psilocybin-assisted interventions and (2) neuroplasticity-related biological findings that plausibly support sustained improvement. [2,3] Narrative review using only (clinical trials/secondary analyses and mechanistic animal/neuroimaging work). Evidence was summarized qualitatively; no meta-analysis was performed. [2,16] Randomized and open-label clinical studies report rapid symptom reduction and follow-up persistence in major depression and cancer-related depression/anxiety, including six-month outcomes in treatment-resistant depression (TRD) protocols with psychological support. [4,5,7,19] Preclinical work provides convergent evidence of plasticity-relevant change after psilocybin, including structural synaptic remodeling in frontal cortex and hippocampal plasticity-related outcomes in extinction learning paradigms. [3,8] Human neuroimaging work reports changes consistent with altered large-scale brain dynamics after psilocybin and TRD-related mechanistic findings on fMRI. [6,20] Across the uploaded dataset, psilocybin-assisted therapy is associated with rapid antidepressant effects and durability signals in selected samples, while convergent animal and human mechanistic findings support neuroplasticity as a biologically plausible contributor to sustained clinical improvement. [2,3]

topic_tags:
Depression,Anxiety,Neuroplasticity,Brain Imaging,Mechanism of Action,Receptor Pharmacology,Aging,Clinical Trial,Meta-Analysis,Review Article,Animal Study,Cancer Patients,Treatment-Resistant Depression


journal: International Journal of Innovative Technologies in Social Science
publication_date: 2026-01-27
doi: 10.31435/ijitss.1(49).2026.4711
source_url: https://doi.org/10.31435/ijitss.1(49).2026.4711
substance_tags: psilocybin
study_type: Systematic Review
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
PSILOCYBIN IN PSYCHIATRIC PRACTICE AND PSYCHEDELIC-ASSISTED THERAPY FOR TREATMENT-RESISTANT DEPRESSION

authors:
Łukasz Deska, Cezary Kosmecki, Dawid Głaz, Natalia Kamińska, Wojciech Sołtys, Magdalena Stolarczyk, Maksymilian Głaz, Mateusz Stronczyński, Aleksandra Jagura-Sukiennik, Julia Wawerska

abstract:
This manuscript comprehensively reviews psilocybin-assisted therapy for major depressive disorder and treatment-resistant depression. It aims to synthesize current understanding regarding its mechanisms, efficacy, safety, costs, and accessibility, comparing it with conventional antidepressant and ketamine treatments. The methodology involved a narrative synthesis of academic literature, drawing from systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and clinical trials identified through targeted database searches. Key findings indicate that psilocybin therapy demonstrates rapid, robust, and sustained antidepressant effects, with high response and remission rates, often after one or two sessions. Its safety profile is generally favorable, with transient and mild adverse events. Mechanistically, psilocybin primarily acts on serotonin 5-HT2A receptors, modulating brain networks and enhancing neuroplasticity. However, significant challenges exist in terms of high costs, limited accessibility due to the intensive therapeutic model, and regulatory hurdles. In conclusion, psilocybin-assisted therapy offers a promising alternative for depression, particularly where standard treatments fail, by providing rapid and durable symptom reduction through unique neurobiological pathways. Future research should focus on optimizing treatment protocols, exploring long-term outcomes, identifying predictors of response, and addressing systemic barriers to accessibility and cost-effectiveness to facilitate its integration into broader mental healthcare.

topic_tags:
Depression,Neuroplasticity,Mechanism of Action,Receptor Pharmacology,Clinical Trial,Systematic Review,Review Article,Treatment-Resistant Depression,Safety,Adverse Events

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journal: Psychedelic Medicine
publication_date: 2026-01-26
doi: 10.1177/28314425251404460
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1177/28314425251404460
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,Anxiety,Emotional Processing,Clinical Trial,Cancer Patients,Safety
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
Group Retreat Psilocybin Therapy for People with Metastatic Cancer with Anxiety and Depression: A Rite of Passage Facilitation Model for a Phase 1/2 Study

authors:
Back Anthony L., McGregor Bonnie A., Billingsley Lindsay, Blom Dianna, Callan George, Myers Susanna, Guy John, Kumar Sameet, Layer Melissa, Levin Jackie, Perez Juliana, Thompson Peter, Salmonson Kathy, Whinney Joseph, Thorn Leslie Lazar

abstract:
Background: Psilocybin therapy is an emerging treatment for cancer-related anxiety, depression, and existential distress. Most clinical trials to date have studied individual models of psilocybin therapy, but group models may offer increased access and benefits of community. Purpose: This technical report describes a group facilitation model developed for an food and drug administration (FDA)-approved Phase 1 to 2 clinical trial that recruited people with metastatic cancer who had moderate or severe symptoms of anxiety or depression in which psilocybin was administered at a 3-day, in-person retreat. Results: The facilitation model we developed for this intervention is based on anthropological studies of ritual, specifically rites of passage, to develop a secular ritual with therapeutic aims. Using rites of passage terminology, “separation” corresponds to preparation, “liminal” corresponds to the psilocybin dosing session, and “reincorporation” corresponds to integration. In our usage, the term “ritual” refers to intentionally structured, symbolic acts that embody and reinforce shared meaning, guiding participants through experiences that may otherwise feel unbounded or overwhelming. In the group psilocybin retreat model, ritual functions both psychologically-by supporting emotional regulation, orientation, and meaning-making-and communally-by embedding the individual’s process within a shared field of intention and care. Conclusion: To our knowledge this is the first FDA-approved clinical trial of a secular ritual-based group facilitation model for psychedelic therapy that is associated with empirically demonstrated safety and efficacy outcomes.

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authors: Scott Rishika, Smith James
journal: Emerging Minds Journal for Student Research
publication_date: 2026-01-24
doi: 10.59973/emjsr.317
source_url: https://doi.org/10.59973/emjsr.317
substance_tags: psilocybin
study_type: Randomized Controlled Trial
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.59973/emjsr.317","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
The Evaluation of the Efficacy and Safety of the Use of Psilocybin in the Treatment of Adults with Treatment-Resistant Depression

abstract:
Treatment-resistant depression (TRD) has been well-researched within scientific literature, although the therapeutic value of psilocybin is not fully understood. The aim of this systematic review is to determine a stable and effective dosage unit to inform health professionals of the benefits of psilocybin, using peer-reviewed literature and meta-analysis. The review will also compare selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) with psychotherapy to draw conclusions and recommendations of psilocybin therapy to improve day-to-day living for affected patients. PubMed and the University of Portsmouth Discovery online database (EBSCOhost) were individually utilised from December 2024 to March 2025. Five open-label studies and 2 randomised controlled trials (RCTs) were selected to assess psilocybin efficacy and safety. Appraisal checklists along with search criteria were used to determine eligibility and reliability of these data. The random-effects meta-analyses demonstrated that psilocybin at 25 mg within specific integrated sessions was effective at treating TRD compared to 10 mg and 1 mg by comparing clinical trials between two doses and single doses. Psilocybin at 25 mg was found to significantly reduce patients’ depressive severity compared to the baseline, which was prevalent in the two-dose studies (n = 5) compared to the single-dose studies (n = 2), due to the number of studies produced. The overall evidence suggests that psilocybin is an effective therapeutic for treatment-resistant depression, with a dosage unit of 25 mg administered as a single capsule per dosing session, with one dose per clinical session. Limitations to the evidence and this review have affected the overall results; therefore, more relevant studies are needed.

topic_tags:
Depression,Receptor Pharmacology,Clinical Trial,Randomized Controlled Trial,Meta-Analysis,Systematic Review,Review Article,Treatment-Resistant Depression,Safety


authors: Jakub Klepacz, Radosław Swędrak, Marzena Swojnóg, Zuzanna Dobrakowska
journal: International Journal of Innovative Technologies in Social Science
publication_date: 2026-01-22
doi: 10.31435/ijitss.1(49).2026.4582
source_url: https://doi.org/10.31435/ijitss.1(49).2026.4582
substance_tags: psilocybin
study_type: Systematic Review
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:03:07
title:
THE PSYCHEDELIC RENAISSANCE: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF PSILOCYBIN AND LSD IN THE TREATMENT OF PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS

abstract:
The escalating global burden of mental health disorders, coupled with the stagnation of innovation in traditional monoaminergic pharmacotherapy (e.g., SSRIs), has precipitated a critical need for novel therapeutic paradigms. This article presents a comprehensive systematic review of the so-called "Psychedelic Renaissance," focusing on the clinical resurgence of classical serotonergic hallucinogens: psilocybin and Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD). The review adopts an interdisciplinary structure to evaluate the efficacy, safety, and societal implications of these compounds. Firstly, the paper traces the historical evolution of psychedelics from indigenous sacramental use, through the research proliferation of the 1950s, to the prohibitive legislation of the late 20th century. Secondly, it delineates the neurobiological mechanisms of action, specifically 5-HT2A receptor agonism and the disintegration of the Default Mode Network (DMN), which correlates with the alleviation of rigid cognitive patterns in depression and anxiety. Thirdly, the review synthesizes data from contemporary clinical trials demonstrating significant therapeutic potential in Treatment-Resistant Depression (TRD), end-of-life existential distress, and substance use disorders. Unlike standard pharmacological reviews, this paper also analyzes the distinct psychotherapeutic framework ("set and setting"), integration processes, and socio-economic factors, including cost-effectiveness and access equity. The findings suggest that psychedelic-assisted therapy represents a transformative shift from chronic symptom management to rapid, episodic curative interventions, provided that regulatory and ethical challenges are adequately addressed.

topic_tags:
Depression,Anxiety,Addiction,End-of-Life Distress,Mechanism of Action,Receptor Pharmacology,Default Mode Network,Clinical Trial,Systematic Review,Review Article,Treatment-Resistant Depression,Safety

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journal: Psychedelic Medicine
publication_date: 2026-01-17
doi: 10.1177/28314425251413856
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1177/28314425251413856
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,Anxiety,Clinical Trial,Observational Study,Cancer Patients,Safety
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:03:07
title:
Group Retreat Psilocybin Therapy for People with Metastatic Cancer with Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression: Safety and Efficacy Outcomes of a Phase 1/2 Study

authors:
Back Anthony L., McGregor Bonnie A., Thorn Leslie L., Baker Kelsey, Gooley Ted, Kaelen Mendel, Harvey Kalin, Guy John M., Myers Susanna, Perez Juliana, Thompson Peter, Billingsley Lindsay, Sesnon Cheryl

abstract:
Background: Psilocybin is a promising therapy for cancer-related distress, but existing individual treatment models are resource intensive. In this study, we designed and tested a group model of psilocybin therapy for people with metastatic cancer and cancer-related anxiety and depression. Method: Eligibility criteria included metastatic cancer, moderate-to-severe symptoms of anxiety or depression without a pre-cancer mental health diagnosis, performance status adequate to attend a 3-day retreat that required self-care, and tapering of antidepressants. Exclusion criteria included enrollment in hospice. The design of the intervention included: two virtual preparatory sessions; a 3-day in-person retreat in a rustic setting that included the third prep session, the psilocybin session, and the first integration session; and two additional virtual integration sessions. Psilocybin was administered in oral capsules at 25 mg. A retreat team of four core facilitators and two backup facilitators conducted a series of eight retreats. The first retreat had five participants. For subsequent retreats, we used the primary safety outcome from each cohort, other safety outcomes, and qualitative feedback to make decisions to increase, decrease, or hold steady the participant number. The primary safety outcome was “unattended episodes of participant distress” during the psilocybin session requiring a backup facilitator. The primary exploratory efficacy outcome was reduction in anxiety and depression symptoms measured using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). Results: We enrolled 55 participants, of whom 3 withdrew prior to the retreat, leaving a total of 52. Their mean age was 53, and mean duration of living with cancer was 36 months, mean (range 5, 176); anticancer therapy was ongoing for 46 (88%); antidepressants were tapered for 18 (35%). The first retreat cohort had five participants, and the final retreat cohort had eight. For the primary safety outcome, there was not a single episode of unattended participant distress requiring a backup facilitator. The mean baseline at Day −14 (D −14) HADS total score was 17.5 (range 6-28); at D +28, the mean HADS total score was 10.2 (1-30), so the mean decrease in HADS from D −14 to D +28 was 7.3. ( p < 0.0001). Conclusion: The Group Retreat Psilocybin Therapy was safe and well tolerated, and exploratory measures show efficacy that is promising. A group configuration of eight participants with four core facilitators can be safe for future studies with participants with serious medical illness.

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authors: Totomanova I., Haijen E.C.H.M., Hurks P.P.M., Mason N.L., Kuypers K.P.C.
journal: Neuroscience Applied
publication_date: 2025-12-31
doi: 10.1016/j.nsa.2025.106822
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nsa.2025.106822
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Observational Study
study_type: Observational Study
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1016/j.nsa.2025.106822"}
title:
Preliminary results from an ongoing naturalistic survey study investigating dose-finding practices and effects of self-administered small amounts of psilocybin


journal: Neuroscience Applied
publication_date: 2025-12-31
doi: 10.1016/j.nsa.2026.106903
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nsa.2026.106903
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Brain Imaging,Biomarkers
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1016/j.nsa.2026.106903"}
title:
Effects of low-dose psilocybin on EEG markers of sensory processing in autistic and non-autistic adults

authors:
Ollari O., Whelan T.P., Ellis C.L., Khalil N., Moruzzi F., Murphy D.G.M., Daly E., Mason L., Puts N., McAlonan G.M.


journal: Revista Metropolitana de Ciencias Aplicadas
publication_date: 2025-12-31
doi: 10.62452/hx8sfs74
source_url: https://doi.org/10.62452/hx8sfs74
substance_tags: psilocybin
study_type: Systematic Review
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
raw_json: {"doi":"10.62452/hx8sfs74"}
title:
Psilocibina en cuidados paliativos: revisión sistemática de los efectos a nivel emocional y espiritual-existenciales

authors:
Toalombo-Eugenio Graciela Estefanía, Carrillo-Zavala Katheryne Viviana, Mayorga-Núñez Verónica Giovanna

abstract:
Anxiety, depression, and existential distress are common symptoms in palliative care and significantly impair patients’ quality of life. Psilocybin-assisted therapy, based on preparation, therapeutic support, and psychotherapeutic integration, has emerged as a promising intervention to alleviate this complex cluster of suffering. The aim of this systematic review was to synthesize the evidence on the efficacy, safety, and effects of psilocybin on emotional and spiritual–existential dimensions in palliative populations. PRISMA 2020 guidelines were followed, and searches were conducted between 2015 and 2025 in PubMed, Web of Science, PsycINFO, and MEDLINE to identify eligible studies. After title and abstract screening, twelve studies met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed through systematic extraction of relevant clinical and methodological data. The results showed that a single psilocybin session with psychotherapeutic support produced rapid, significant, and sustained reductions in anxiety and depression, lasting up to six months. In the spiritual–existential domain, increases were observed in meaning in life, acceptance, spiritual well-being, and quality of life, along with impactful mystical experiences of prolonged duration. One cohort demonstrated maintenance of benefits during follow-up periods of up to four years, suggesting durable effects on coping and existential perception. Safety outcomes were favorable, with mild and transient adverse events, including nausea, in-session anxiety, headache, and temporary physiological increases without serious complications. Overall, the evidence clearly indicates that psilocybin, administered within a structured clinical setting, constitutes a viable option for addressing spiritual needs in palliative care.

topic_tags:
Depression,Anxiety,End-of-Life Distress,Headache / Migraine,Wellbeing,Emotional Processing,Spirituality,Mystical Experience,Systematic Review,Review Article,Observational Study,Safety,Adverse Events


authors: Benes M., Gregus D., Adamek P., Palenicek T., Horacek J.
journal: Neuroscience Applied
publication_date: 2025-12-31
doi: 10.1016/j.nsa.2025.106823
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nsa.2025.106823
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Healthy Volunteers
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1016/j.nsa.2025.106823"}
title:
Psilocybin increases connectivity between unimodal and transmodal networks in healthy volunteers listening to music


title: Preclinical evaluation of psilocybin as an anti-inflammatory agent
journal: Neuroscience Applied
publication_date: 2025-12-31
doi: 10.1016/j.nsa.2025.105853
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nsa.2025.105853
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Animal Study,Inflammation
study_type: Animal Study
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1016/j.nsa.2025.105853"}
authors:
Martínez-Álvarez N., Erkizia-Santamaría I., Tomás-Alvarado A., Erdozain A.M., Meana J.J., Ortega J.E.


authors: Herman Melissa
journal: Biological Psychiatry
publication_date: 2026-04-30
doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2026.03.055
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2026.03.055
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1016/j.biopsych.2026.03.055","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
Sex-Specific Effects of Psilocin on Paraventricular Nucleus of the Thalamus (PVT) Circuitry and Threat Responding Behavior in Male and Female Rats


authors: Stirn Judith, Berger Raphael, Hübner Harald, Gmeiner Peter, Klein Christian D.
journal: European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry Reports
publication_date: 2025-11-30
doi: 10.1016/j.ejmcr.2025.100278
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmcr.2025.100278
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
Towards "unmakable" psychedelics: SAR exploration of psilocin analogs obtained by a HATU-mediated amide coupling strategy

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authors: Cali James
journal: Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics
publication_date: 2025-05-31
doi: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2025.101231
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dmpk.2025.101231
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: In Vitro Study,Drug Interactions
study_type: In Vitro Study
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1016/j.dmpk.2025.101231","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
In vitro assessment of psilocin for CYP-dependent drug-drug interaction potential using rapid luminescent assays


journal: Journal of Pharmacological and Toxicological Methods
publication_date: 2025-04-30
doi: 10.1016/j.vascn.2025.107663
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vascn.2025.107663
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Pharmacology
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1016/j.vascn.2025.107663","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
Pharmacokinetics (PK) of psilocybin and psilocin in plasma following intravenous administration of psilocin and oral administration of psilocybin to male beagle dogs

authors:
de Lannoy Ines, Magomedova Lilia, Izhakova Julia, de Rivera Christina, Lanthier James, Atkinson Jason, Higgins Guy A., Slassi Malik, Araujo Joseph A.


journal: Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics
publication_date: 2024-03-31
doi: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2023.100829
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dmpk.2023.100829
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Drug Interactions
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1016/j.dmpk.2023.100829","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
Inhibition of cytochrome P450 3A4 enzyme activity by alkaloid psilocin from magic mushrooms: potential for drug interactions

authors:
Wilson Lavonne, Babumon Muthiramalil T., Irvine William, Morrison Isaac, Foster Kimberly, Delgoda Rupika


authors: Kulikov Aleksandr V., Zheleznyak Ilya Yu.
journal: Drug control
publication_date: 2024-03-13
doi: 10.18572/2072-4160-2024-1-23-26
source_url: https://doi.org/10.18572/2072-4160-2024-1-23-26
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.18572/2072-4160-2024-1-23-26","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
Problems of Qualification of Trafficking in Plants and Plant Parts Containing Psychoactive Substances and Mushrooms Containing Psilocybin and (or) Psilocin

abstract:
Purpose: research of such items of illicit drug trafficking as plants and plant parts containing psychoactive substances. Methodology: study and analysis of judicial practice of higher courts and scientific research of natural science specialists; formal legal and technical legal methods. Conclusions: there is a lack of due attention to the problem of selling narcotic plants and their parts, as well as narcotic mushrooms using information and telecommunication networks (including the Internet); the question is raised about the selection of mushrooms containing psilocybin and (or) psilocin from the List of plants containing psychoactive substances, since mushrooms are not plants. Scientific and practical significance: the authors propose the dispositions of art. 228, part 1 art. 228.1, art. 229.1 and art. 231 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, as well as the dispositions of the relevant articles of the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation, after the words ‘...or their parts containing narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances’, add the words ‘mushrooms containing psilocybin and (or) psilocin’. Also part 2 of art. 228 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation should be supplemented with the words: ‘Acquisition of items specified in Part 1 of this article using the media or electronic or information and telecommunication networks (including the Internet)’, which in general will make it possible to suppress their illegal trafficking.


authors: Kolesnik E., Navarro M. López, Raval N.R., Ozenne B., Hansen H.D.
journal: Neuroscience Applied
publication_date: 2023-12-31
doi: 10.1016/j.nsa.2024.105133
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nsa.2024.105133
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Receptor Pharmacology
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1016/j.nsa.2024.105133","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
Pharmacological characterization of psilocin affinity towards different 5-HT receptors and receptor regulation after psilocybin administration in pigs


title: CHIẾT XUẤT PSILOCIN TỪ NẤM THỨC THẦN LÀM NGUYÊN LIỆU THIẾT LẬP CHUẨN
authors: Trần Nguyên Hà, Đặng Đức Khanh, Phạm Đức Trọng, Nguyễn Xuân Trường
journal: Tạp chí Y học Quân sự
publication_date: 2023-12-10
doi: 10.59459/1859-1655/jmm.282
source_url: https://doi.org/10.59459/1859-1655/jmm.282
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.59459/1859-1655/jmm.282","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
abstract:
Nghiên cứu đã xây dựng thành công phương pháp chiết xuất, phân lập và nhận dạng psilocin từ nấm Thức thần để làm nguyên liệu thiết lập chuẩn thứ cấp, phục vụ công tác giám định tư pháp về ma túy. Phương pháp sử dụng nhiệt để khử photphat, chuyển psilocybin thành psilocin. Kĩ thuật chiết pha lỏng và phân lập bằng sắc kí cột được sử dụng để thu psilocin tinh khiết. Sản phẩm từ việc ứng dụng phương pháp được khẳng định bằng quang phổ hồng ngoại, phổ khối lượng và đạt độ tinh khiết 96,38% bằng sắc kí lỏng theo phương pháp chuẩn hóa diện tích pic.


journal: IBRO Neuroscience Reports
publication_date: 2023-09-30
doi: 10.1016/j.ibneur.2023.08.1471
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibneur.2023.08.1471
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Qualitative Study
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1016/j.ibneur.2023.08.1471","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
CROSS-SPECIES EVIDENCE FOR PSILOCIN-INDUCED VISUAL HALLUCINATIONS: RATS PERCEIVE QUALITATIVELY SIMILAR CHANGES AS HUMANS

authors:
Vejmola Cestmir, Syrová Kateřina, Šíchová Klára, Koudelka Vlastimil, Hubený Jan, Kluckova Tereza, Nikolic Marek, Kelemen Eduard, Páleníček Tomáš


authors: Costa A.M., Silva-Carvalho M., Madureira-Carvalho A., Dinis-Oliveira R.J., Dias-da-Silva D.
journal: Toxicology Letters
publication_date: 2023-08-31
doi: 10.1016/s0378-4274(23)00499-x
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-4274(23)00499-x
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: In Vitro Study
study_type: In Vitro Study
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
P05-02: Assessment of the CYP450 inhibitory activity of psilocybin, psilocin, LSD, 5-MeO-DMT and mescaline: An in vitro study

raw_json:
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title: The Theoretical Description for Psilocin Electrochemical Determination over Cobalt Oxyhydroxide
journal: Orbital: The Electronic Journal of Chemistry
publication_date: 2023-04-05
doi: 10.17807/orbital.v15i1.18012
source_url: https://doi.org/10.17807/orbital.v15i1.18012
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.17807/orbital.v15i1.18012","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
authors:
Volodymyr Tkach, Kucher Mykhailo, Kushnir Marta, Ivanushko Yana, Akınay Yüksel, Karakoyun Necdet, Yagodynets Petro, Kormosh Zholt

abstract:
The possibility of psilocin electrochemical determination over cobalt (III) oxyhydroxide-modified anode is evaluated from the mathematical point of view. Psilocin is thereby oxidized yielding either micro- or macromolecular product, being both of them important for the economical and green conducting polymer composite for electrocatalysis, electroanalysis and energy conversion. The analysis of the correspondent mathematical model confirms, that, despite of the high probability of the oscillatory behavior, the electrochemical process is efficient from both analytical and synthetical point of view.


title: Conformational Landscape and Hydrogen Bonding Pattern of Psilocin: Computational Insights
authors: Bhadoria Poonam, Ramanathan Venkatnarayan
journal: ChemistrySelect
publication_date: 2023-01-08
doi: 10.1002/slct.202203994
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/slct.202203994
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
abstract:
Abstract Conformational analysis of psilocin, a psychedelic molecule was carried out at B3LYP/cc-pVTZ level of theory. And a global minimum was identified having highest population among all the local conformers along with second stable conformer which is 5.4 kcal/mol higher in energy than global minimum. The global mimimum is stable due to the formation of intramolecular H-bond between ethyl amine nitrogen and indolic hydroxyl group, revealed by AIM (Atoms in molecule) analysis. This is in contradiction to earlier X-ray crystal studies of this molecule reported in literature. Dimers of both stable conformers were studied at same level that is B3LYP/cc-pVTZ and it was observed that the intramolecular H-bond energy dominates over the intermolecular H-bond in the dimers. Other calculations namely NBO (Natural bond orbital), FMO (Frontier molecular orbital), charge analysis, ESP (Electrostatic potential) mapping corroborated the AIM results in a significant manner. The spectroscopic study including UV (Ultraviolet), 1 H-NMR (Proton nuclear magnetic resonance) and vibrational modes calculation were found to be in good agreement with the data reported in literature.

raw_json:
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authors: Vejmola Č., Hubený J., Koudelka V., Griškova-Bulanova I., Páleníček T.
journal: Neuroscience Applied
publication_date: 2022-12-31
doi: 10.1016/j.nsa.2023.103662
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nsa.2023.103662
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: Receptor Pharmacology
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1016/j.nsa.2023.103662","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
Electrophysiological study of visual and auditory processing in psilocin-induced hallucinations: exploring evoked potentials and 5-HT2A receptor involvement


authors: Magiatis P, Dadiotis E, Antonopoulos R K, Ioannidis K, Mitsis V, Melliou E, Gonou-Zagou Z
journal: Planta Medica
publication_date: 2022-11-30
doi: 10.1055/s-0042-1759062
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0042-1759062
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
Direct Quantitation of Psilocybin and Psilocin by One-Dimensional 1H and 31P qNMR in a revived Greek specimen of Psilocybe cyanescens

raw_json:
{"doi":"10.1055/s-0042-1759062","reference_dois":["10.1002/hlca.19590420518","10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.3285","10.1177/0269881119897615","10.1177/0269881114565144"],"reference_count":4}


journal: RevSALUS - Revista Científica da Rede Académica das Ciências da Saúde da Lusofonia
publication_date: 2022-04-05
doi: 10.51126/revsalus.v4isup.271
source_url: https://doi.org/10.51126/revsalus.v4isup.271
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: Depression,Pharmacology,Mechanism of Action
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.51126/revsalus.v4isup.271","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
Psylocybin and Psilocin as new tools to fight depression: an overview of the Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic mechanisms

authors:
Lemos Martins Sofia, Machado Brito-da-Costa Andreia, Madureira-Carvalho Áurea, Dinis-Oliveira Ricardo Jorge, Dias da Silva Diana


title: Evaluation of a quantitative analytical method for psilocin and psilocybin using HPLC-DAD
journal: RevSALUS - Revista Científica da Rede Académica das Ciências da Saúde da Lusofonia
publication_date: 2022-04-05
doi: 10.51126/revsalus.v4isup.455
source_url: https://doi.org/10.51126/revsalus.v4isup.455
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.51126/revsalus.v4isup.455","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
authors:
Filho Cesar, Costa Fernandes Joana Margarida, Machado Brito-da-Costa Andreia, Marin-Bruzos Marieta, Saayman Jean, Sanders Daniel, Dinis-Oliveira Ricardo Jorge


title: Production and extraction of psilocybin and psilocin from Psilocybe spp. mushrooms
journal: RevSALUS - Revista Científica da Rede Académica das Ciências da Saúde da Lusofonia
publication_date: 2022-04-05
doi: 10.51126/revsalus.v4isup.456
source_url: https://doi.org/10.51126/revsalus.v4isup.456
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.51126/revsalus.v4isup.456","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
authors:
Costa Fernandes Joana Margarida, Filho Cesar, Machado Brito-da-Costa Andreia, Marin-Bruzos Marieta, Saayman Jean, Sanders Daniel, Dinis-Oliveira Ricardo Jorge


title: Unravelling a New Conformer of Psilocin Through Computational Methods
authors: Bhadoria Poonam, Venkatnarayan Ramanathan
journal: SSRN Electronic Journal
publication_date: 2021-12-31
doi: 10.2139/ssrn.4162669
source_url: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4162669
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json:
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title: P.0858 Psilocin induces perceptual alterations in rats: visual discrimination study
authors: Vejmola Č., Syrová K., Koudelka V., Šíchová K., Tesař M., Dodoková A., Kelemen E., Páleníček T.
journal: European Neuropsychopharmacology
publication_date: 2021-11-30
doi: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2021.10.715
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2021.10.715
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json:
{"doi":"10.1016/j.euroneuro.2021.10.715","reference_dois":["10.1001/archneurol.2010.35","10.1136/bcr-2018-224340","10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.12.025","10.1016/j.bbr.2017.07.040"],"reference_count":4}


authors: Lenz C, Dörner S, Sherwood A, Hoffmeister D.
publication_date: 2021-07-05
doi: 10.1002/chem.202101382
pubmed_id: 34062028
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.202101382
keywords: Hallucinogens, Dimerization, Oxidative Stress, Psilocybin
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Oxidative Stress
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:01
title:
Structure Elucidation and Spectroscopic Analysis of Chromophores Produced by Oxidative Psilocin Dimerization.

abstract:
Psilocin (1) is the dephosphorylated and psychotropic metabolite of the mushroom natural product psilocybin. Oxidation of the phenolic hydroxy group at the C-4 position of 1 results in formation of oligomeric indoloquinoid chromophores responsible for the iconic blueing of bruised psilocybin-producing mushrooms. Based on previous NMR experiments, the hypothesis included that the 5,5'-coupled quinone dimer of 1 was the primary product responsible for the blue color. To test this hypothesis, ring-methylated 1 derivatives were synthesized to provide stable analogs of 1 dimers that could be completely characterized. The chemically oxidized derivatives were spectroscopically analyzed and compared to computationally derived absorbance spectra. Experimental evidence did not support the original hypothesis. Rather, the blue color was shown to stem from the quinoid 7,7'-coupled dimer of 1.

raw_json:
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title: Effects of the putative antidepressant psilocin on the lipid-raft proteome and lipid-raft signaling
authors: Senese Nicolas, Nguyen Thu, Cologna Stephanie, Rasenick Mark
journal: The FASEB Journal
publication_date: 2021-04-30
doi: 10.1096/fasebj.2021.35.s1.03168
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1096/fasebj.2021.35.s1.03168
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Mechanism of Action,Biomarkers,Clinical Trial,Proteomics
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1096/fasebj.2021.35.s1.03168","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
abstract:
Serotonergic hallucinogens psilocybin, and its active metabolite psilocin, have shown promise as rapid-acting antidepressants. The FDA granted breakthrough therapy designation for psilocybin's use as an antidepressant in 2019, and phase II clinical trials are currently ongoing. Psilocybin is converted to psilocin following oral administration, and this metabolite is the primary active compound found in the central nervous system. As such, it is critically important to understand the cellular and molecular processes contributing to psilocin's antidepressant action, as well as the similarities and differences between the cellular effects of psilocin and those of more traditional antidepressants. Both traditional and rapid-acting antidepressants cause translocation of Gα s from lipid-rafts to non-raft membranes. The sequelae of this translocation event include increased overall Gα s activity, leading to increased cellular cAMP. Antidepressants also accumulate in lipid-raft membranes, even in cellular models lacking the presumed binding target for these drugs. The lipid-raft binding target(s) are currently unknown, and the processes which contribute to Gα s translocation have not been fully elucidated. In this study we utilize a proteomic approach in a cellular model to investigate psilocin's effects on both the lipid-raft and non-raft proteome. We expect that additional proteins besides Gα s exhibit raft to non-raft translocation following antidepressant treatment. Proteins exhibiting this translocation pattern may represent as-of-yet unrecognized contributors to antidepressant efficacy, or may serve as antidepressant biomarkers. We also measure signaling downstream of Gα s and Gα q in intact cells, as well as purified lipid-raft membranes, using modified cAMP (AlphaScreen, cADDis) and inositol monophosphate (IP-One) detection assays. We hypothesize that both psilocin and desipramine attenuate lipid-raft Gα s (but notGα q ) downstream signaling due to the loss of Gα s fromthese membranes. Membranes treated with psilocin or the tricyclic antidepressant desipramine are compared in order to identify candidate proteins that may be generally affected following antidepressant treatment. Both drugs cause raft to non-raft translocation of hundreds of proteins. Several of these translocated proteins are common to both drug treatments, and we expect to identify novel contributors to the antidepressant response from this subset of proteins. In particular, observed effects on specific integrins, G-proteins, and cholesterol biosynthesis pathways will be followed up with more in-depth analyses in future studies. We also show that antidepressant treatments reduce lipid-raft Gα s signaling, while simultaneously increasing whole cell Gα s signaling. This effect can persist for over 24 hr after drug withdrawal. These results represent one of the first direct measurements of lipid-raft signaling following antidepressant treatment, and may provide a more complete understanding of both antidepressant action, and the molecular mechanisms by which hallucinogens achieve antidepressant efficacy.


authors: Musikaphongsakul P, Ya K, Subsoontorn P, Lohitnavy M.
journal: F1000Res
publication_date: 2021-03-14
doi: 10.12688/f1000research.28133.1
source_url: https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.28133.1
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Pharmacology,Receptor Pharmacology
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: preprint
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:01
title:
Development of a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model of psilocybin and psilocin from magic mushroom in rats and humans

abstract:
Background:: Psilocybin (PB) is a psychoactive compound commonly found in magic mushroom ( Psilocybe cubensis ). PB is quickly converted by the body to psilocin (PI), which has a psychedelic effect through the activation of the 5-HT2A receptor in the brain. The objective of this study is to develop a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model of PB and PI in rats and humans for predicting concentrations of the psychoactive substance in the brain. Methods:: Following a search in PubMed, three studies were retrieved and information concerning concentration - time profiles of PI were extracted from the selected studies. In the study in rats, PI was orally administered with a dose of 10.1 mg / kg. There were two studies in humans following a single intravenous dose of PB (1 mg) and oral dose of PB (0.224 mg / kg and 0.3 mg / kg). Berkeley Madonna software was used for computer coding and simulations. The developed PBPK model consisted of seven organ compartments (i.e. lung, heart, brain, fat, muscle, kidney, and liver). Results:: The simulations show a good agreement between observed and simulated data, although results for oral administration in rats and humans showed under - predictions and results for intravenous administration in humans showed over - predictions. Conclusions:: A PBPK model of PB and PI in rats and humans was developed and could predict concentration-time profiles of PI in plasma, particularly in the brain, following intravenous and oral administration of PB. This model may be useful for a safer dosage regimen of PB for patients with some disorders.

raw_json:
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journal: Forensic Toxicology
publication_date: 2021-06-30
doi: 10.1007/s11419-020-00566-3
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11419-020-00566-3
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
Sensitive quantitative analysis of psilocin and psilocybin in hair samples from suspected users and their distribution in seized hallucinogenic mushrooms

authors:
Zhou Liying, Xiang Ping, Wen Di, Shen Baohua, Wang Xin, Li Le, Deng Hongxiao, Chen Hang, Yan Hui, Shen Min, Shi Yan, Liu Wanhui

abstract:
Abstract Purpose In this study, we developed a very sensitive method for quantitative analysis of psilocin and psilocybin in hair samples of magic mushroom consumers. Methods The analyses were performed with pretreatments of samples, followed by ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography (LC) connected to a Q-Trap type tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). For LC, mobile phase (A) consisted of 0.1% formic acid in water, and mobile phase (B) was acetonitrile for gradient elution using a Acquity™ UPLC HSS T3 column. For MS/MS, electrospray ionization measurements in positive selected reaction monitoring mode were used. Results The calibration curves were linear from 5 to 500 pg/mg (r > 0.99) and no selectivity problems occurred. The limit of detection was 1 pg/mg, and the lower limit of quantitation was 5 pg/mg. The ranges of the matrix effects and recovery rates were 90.4-107% and 76.0-102%, respectively. Conclusions The concentrations of psilocin in two authentic hair were 161 and 150 pg/mg, respectively, and psilocybin was not detected from both samples. This method was also used to analyze the distribution of psilocin and psilocybin in seven hallucinogenic mushrooms. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of psilocin concentrations in hair samples of hallucinogenic mushroom consumers, and also our method is most sensitive for quantitative analysis of psilocin and psilocybin in hair samples.

raw_json:
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authors: Kolaczynska KE, Liechti ME, Duthaler U.
publication_date: 2020-12-06
doi: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2020.122486
pubmed_id: 33485158
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2020.122486
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Pharmacology
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:01
title:
Development and validation of an LC-MS/MS method for the bioanalysis of psilocybin's main metabolites, psilocin and 4-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid, in human plasma.

abstract:
Psilocin is the active metabolite of psilocybin, a serotonergic psychedelic substance. It is used recreationally and investigated in substance-assisted psychotherapy. The pharmacokinetic properties of psilocin are only partially characterized. Therefore, we developed and validated a rapid LC-MS/MS method to quantify psilocin and its metabolite 4-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid (4-HIAA) in human plasma. Plasma samples were processed by protein precipitation using methanol. The injected sample was mixed with water in front of a C18 analytical column to increase retention of the analytes. Psilocin and 4-HIAA were detected by multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) in positive and negative electrospray ionisation mode, respectively. An inter-assay accuracy of 100-109% and precision of ≤8.7% was recorded over three validation runs. The recovery was near to complete (≥94.7%) and importantly, consistent over different concentration levels and plasma batches (CV%: ≤4.1%). The plasma matrix caused negligible ion suppression and endogenous interferences could be separated from the analytes. Psilocin and 4-HIAA plasma samples could be thawed and re-frozen for three cycles, kept at room temperature for 8 h or 1 month at -20 °C without showing degradation (≤10%). The linear range (R ≥ 0.998) of the method covered plasma concentrations observed in humans following a common therapeutic oral dose of 25 mg psilocybin and was therefore able to assess the pharmacokinetics of psilocin and 4-HIAA. The LC-MS/MS method was convenient and reliable for measuring psilocin and 4-HIAA in plasma and will facilitate the clinical development of psilocybin.

keywords:
Humans, Hydroxyindoleacetic Acid, Hallucinogens, Chromatography, Liquid, Administration, Oral, Linear Models, Sensitivity and Specificity, Reproducibility of Results, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Psilocybin

raw_json:
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authors: Pham DNK, Chadeayne AR, Golen JA, Manke DR.
publication_date: 2021-01-07
doi: 10.1107/s2056989021000116
pubmed_id: 33614134
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1107/s2056989021000116
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
title:
Psilacetin derivatives: fumarate salts of the meth-yl-ethyl, meth-yl-allyl and diallyl variants of the psilocin prodrug.

abstract:
The solid-state structures of the salts of three psilacetin derivatives, namely, 4-acet-oxy-N-eth-yl-N-methyl-tryptammonium (4-AcO-MET) hydro-fumarate {sys-tematic name: [2-(4-acet-yloxy-1H-indol-3-yl)eth-yl](meth-yl)ethyl-aza-nium 3-carb-oxy-prop-2-enoate}, C15H21N2O2 +·C4H3O4 -, 4-acet-oxy-N-allyl-N-methyl-tryptammonium (4-AcO-MALT) hydro-fumarate {systematic name: [2-(4-acet-yl-oxy-1H-indol-3-yl)eth-yl](meth-yl)prop-2-enyl-aza-nium 3-carb-oxy-prop-2-eno-ate}, C16H21N2O2 +·C4H3O4 -, and 4-acet-oxy-N,N-di-allyl-tryptammonium (4-AcO-DALT) fumarate-fumaric acid (1/1) (systematic name: bis-{[2-(4-acet-yloxy-1H-indol-3-yl)eth-yl]diprop-2-enyl-aza-nium} but-2-enedioate-(E)-butenedioic acid (1/1)), 2C18H23N2O2 +·C4H2O4 2-·C4H4O4, are reported. All three salts possess a protonated tryptammonium cation. The 4-AcO-MET and 4-AcO-MALT compounds are charge-balanced by 3-carb-oxy-acrylate (hydro-fumarate) anions. The 4-AcO-DALT complex crystallizes as a two-to-one tryptammonium-to-fumarate salt, which co-crystallizes with a fumaric acid mol-ecule. Each structure is consolidated by N-H⋯O and O-H⋯O hydrogen bonds.

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journal: European Neuropsychopharmacology
publication_date: 2020-10-31
doi: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2020.09.169
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2020.09.169
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1016/j.euroneuro.2020.09.169","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
P.227 Psilocybin induces resting-state functional connectivity changes, which correlate with plasma psilocin levels and psychedelic experience

authors:
Madsen M.K., Stenbæk D.S., Ozenne B., Armand S., Marstrand-Jørgensen M.R., Arvidsson A., Johansen S.S., Linnet K., Knudsen G.M., Fisher P.M.


title: Immunochemical monitoring of psilocybin and psilocin to identify hallucinogenic mushrooms.
publication_date: 2020-07-20
doi: 10.1016/j.jpba.2020.113485
pubmed_id: 32866746
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2020.113485
keywords: Animals, Mice, Agaricales, Hallucinogens, Psilocybe, Psilocybin
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Animal Study
study_type: Animal Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:01
authors:
Morita I, Oyama H, Kiguchi Y, Oguri A, Fujimoto N, Takeuchi A, Tanaka R, Ogata J, Kikura-Hanajiri R, Kobayashi N.

abstract:
Development of rapid and reliable immunochemical methods for monitoring psilocybin (4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine; Pyb) and psilocin (dephosphorylated metabolite; Psi), the psychoactive compounds contained within hallucinogenic mushrooms (magic mushrooms), is desirable in order to identify these mushrooms and regulate their illicit use. Because no antibody was publicly available for this purpose, we generated two independent monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against Pyb or Psi, and then developed enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) by using them. To generate the specific antibodies, novel immunogenic conjugates were prepared by linking Pyb or Psi molecules to carrier proteins by modifying their 2-(N,N-dimethylamino)ethyl side chains. Spleen cells from mice immunized with these conjugates were fused with P3/NS1/1-Ag4-1 myeloma cells, and hybridoma clones secreting anti-Pyb and anti-Psi mAbs were established. These mAbs were characterized for their biochemical features and then applied to competitive ELISAs, which used microplates coated with Pyb or Psi linked with albumin. These ELISAs enabled the determination of Pyb or Psi with measurable ranges of ca. 0.20-20 or 0.040-2.0 μg/assay (limit of detection was 0.14 or 0.029 μg/assay), respectively. The related tryptamines were satisfactorily discriminated as exemplified by the cross-reactivity of the ELISA to determine Pyb (or Psi) with Psi (or Pyb) that were found to be 2.8 % (or

raw_json:
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title: Plasma psilocin critically determines behavioral and neurobiological effects of psilocybin.
authors: Madsen MK, Knudsen GM.
publication_date: 2020-12-31
doi: 10.1038/s41386-020-00823-4
pubmed_id: 32843702
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-020-00823-4
keywords: Hallucinogens, Psilocybin
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:03
raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"32843702","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Direct Phosphorylation of Psilocin Enables Optimized cGMP Kilogram-Scale Manufacture of Psilocybin.
publication_date: 2020-06-30
doi: 10.1021/acsomega.0c02387
pubmed_id: 32685866
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.0c02387
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:01
authors:
Kargbo RB, Sherwood A, Walker A, Cozzi NV, Dagger RE, Sable J, O'Hern K, Kaylo K, Patterson T, Tarpley G, Meisenheimer P.

abstract:
A second-generation kilogram-scale synthesis of the psychedelic tryptamine psilocybin has been developed. The synthesis was designed to address several challenges first encountered with the scale-up of previously described literature procedures, which were not optimized for providing consistent yield and purity of products, atom economy, or being run in pilot plant-scale reactors. These challenges were addressed and circumvented with the design of the second-generation route, which featured an optimized cGMP large-scale Speeter-Anthony tryptamine synthesis to the intermediate psilocin with improved in-process control and impurity removal over the three steps. Psilocin was subsequently phosphorylated directly with phosphorous oxychloride for the first time, avoiding a tedious and poor atom economy benzyl-protecting group strategy common to all previously described methods for producing psilocybin. In this report, the challenges encountered in a 100 g scale first-generation literature-based synthesis are highlighted, followed by a detailed description of the newly developed second-generation synthesis to provide over one kilogram of high-purity psilocybin under cGMP.

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authors: Mishraki-Berkowitz T, Kochelski E, Kavanagh P, O'Brien J, Dunne C, Talbot B, Ennis P, Wolf UE.
publication_date: 2020-05-05
doi: 10.1111/1556-4029.14368
pubmed_id: 32374425
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.14368
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Toxicity
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:01
title:
The Psilocin (4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) and Bufotenine (5-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) Case: Ensuring the Correct Isomer has Been Identified.

abstract:
Psilocin (4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine, 4-HO-DMT) and bufotenine (5-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine, 5-HO-DMT), which are both naturally occurring compounds, are classified as controlled substances in numerous countries due to their pharmacological activities and recreational usage. There are two other benzene ring regioisomers, 6-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (6-HO-DMT) and 7-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (7-HO-DMT), which are not classified by name as controlled substances, and which were synthesized for this current work. The four isomers were analyzed using routine methodologies employed by the Israel's Police Division of Identification and Forensic Science (DIFS) Laboratory, namely thin layer chromatography (TLC), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and gas chromatography mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). It was found possible to differentiate the four isomers. Forensic specimens that were suspected to be psilocybe mushrooms were examined, confirming that it is now possible to unequivocally identify the presence of psilocin and rule out the presence of its other isomers.

keywords:
Humans, Substance-Related Disorders, Bufotenin, Chromatography, Thin Layer, Spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared, Isomerism, Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry, Forensic Toxicology, Psilocybe, Psilocybin, Illicit Drugs

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"32374425","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


journal: Letters in Applied NanoBioScience
publication_date: 2024-12-29
doi: 10.33263/lianbs134.173
source_url: https://doi.org/10.33263/lianbs134.173
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.33263/lianbs134.173","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
Theoretical Description for Psilocin and Coprine Electrochemical Determination in Mushroom Pulp and Biological Liquids over Cobalt (II) Oxyhydroxide-Modified Electrode

abstract:
The possibility of the electrochemical determination of poisonous mushroom toxins psilocin and coprine on CoO(OH)-modified electrode has been evaluated theoretically. The analysis of the correspondent mathematical model confirms the efficiency of the electrochemical sensor for detecting both mycotoxins in mushrooms and biological liquids for either investigation or diagnostic purposes. The linear dependence between the concentration of both of the analytes is established in a wide concentration range, providing an excellent analytical signal interpretation.


authors: Brito-da-Costa A.M., Madureira-Carvalho A., Dinis-Oliveira R.J., Silva D. Dias da
journal: Toxicology Letters
publication_date: 2022-08-31
doi: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2022.07.280
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2022.07.280
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
P03-18 Simultaneous detection and quantification of psilocybin and psilocin by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS)

raw_json:
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title: Exposure-Response Analysis to Assess the Concentration-QTc Relationship of Psilocybin/Psilocin.
authors: Dahmane E, Hutson PR, Gobburu JVS.
publication_date: 2020-04-05
doi: 10.1002/cpdd.796
pubmed_id: 32250059
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/cpdd.796
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Depression,Clinical Trial,Healthy Volunteers
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:01
abstract:
Psilocybin is being developed for treating major depressive disorder. Psilocybin is readily dephosphorylated to psilocin upon absorption. The potential for psilocin proarrhythmic effect was assessed using a concentration-QTc interval (C-QTc) analysis from an open-label single ascending dose study of psilocybin. Psilocybin doses ranged from 0.3 to 0.6 mg/kg. This trial showed a significant but shallow C-QTc relationship. At the clinical dose of 25 mg, the mean psilocin maximum concentration is 18.7 ng/mL, and the associated mean (upper 90% confidence interval of mean) QTcF change is 2.1 (6.6) milliseconds. Given the short half-life of psilocin of about 4 hours, there would be no accumulation after monthly oral doses used in clinical trials. The upper limit of the 90% confidence interval of the model-predicted mean ΔQTcF crossed 10 milliseconds at a psilocin concentration of 31.1 ng/mL. At a supraclinical psilocin maximum concentration of about 60 ng/mL, ΔQTcF remains low, with a mean (upper limit of the 90% confidence interval) of 9.1 (17.9) milliseconds. This analysis enabled the characterization of the C-QTc relationship and prediction of QTc prolongation at the expected clinical and possible higher psilocybin doses.

keywords:
Humans, Long QT Syndrome, Hallucinogens, Electrocardiography, Heart Rate, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Models, Biological, Adult, Female, Male, Healthy Volunteers, Psilocybin

raw_json:
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authors: Poliwoda A, Zielińska K, Wieczorek PP.
publication_date: 2020-03-28
doi: 10.3390/molecules25071566
pubmed_id: 32235328
source_url: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25071566
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:04
title:
Direct Analysis of Psilocin and Muscimol in Urine Samples Using Single Drop Microextraction Technique In-Line with Capillary Electrophoresis.

abstract:
The fully automated system of single drop microextraction coupled with capillary electrophoresis (SDME-CE) was developed for in-line preconcentration and determination of muscimol (MUS) and psilocin (PSC) from urine samples. Those two analytes are characteristic active metabolites of Amanita and Psilocybe mushrooms, evoking visual and auditory hallucinations. Study analytes were selectively extracted from the donor phase (urine samples, pH 4) into the organic phase (a drop of octanol layer), and re-extracted to the acidic acceptor (background electrolyte, BGE), consisting of 25 mM phosphate buffer (pH 3). The optimized conditions for the extraction procedure of a 200 µL urine sample allowed us to obtain more than a 170-fold enrichment effect. The calibration curves were linear in the range of 0.05-50 mg L-1, with the correlation coefficients from 0.9911 to 0.9992. The limit of detections was determined by spiking blank urine samples with appropriate standards, i.e., 0.004 mg L-1 for PSC and 0.016 mg L-1 for MUS, respectively. The limits of quantification varied from 0.014 mg L-1 for PSC and 0.045 mg L-1 for MUS. The developed method practically eliminated the sample clean-up step, which was limited only to simple dilution (1:1, v/v) and pH adjustment.

keywords:
Humans, Amanita, Muscimol, Hallucinogens, Solvents, Calibration, Electrophoresis, Capillary, Hydrogen-Ion Concentration, Psilocybe, Limit of Detection, Liquid Phase Microextraction, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"32235328","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: The fumarate salts of the N-isopropyl-N-methyl derivatives of DMT and psilocin.
authors: Chadeayne AR, Pham DNK, Golen JA, Manke DR.
publication_date: 2019-08-15
doi: 10.1107/s2056989019011253
pubmed_id: 31523457
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1107/s2056989019011253
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
abstract:
The solid-state structures of the salts of two substituted tryptamines, namely N-isopropyl-N-methyl-tryptaminium (MiPT) fumarate {systematic name: [2-(1H-indol-3-yl)eth-yl](meth-yl)propan-2-yl-aza-nium 3-carb-oxy-prop-2-enoate}, C14H21N2 +·C4H3O4 -, and 4-hy-droxy-N-isopropyl-N-methyl-tryptaminium (4-HO-MiPT) fumarate monohydrate {systematic name: [2-(4-hy-droxy-1H-indol-3-yl)eth-yl](meth-yl)propan-2-yl-aza-nium 3-carb-oxy-prop-2-enoate monohydrate}, C14H21N2O+·C4H3O4 -·H2O, are reported. Both salts possess a proton-ated tryptammonium cation and a 3-carb-oxy-acrylate (hydrogen fumarate) anion in the asymmetric unit; the 4-HO-MiPT structure also contains a water mol-ecule of crystallization. Both cations feature disorder of the side chain over two orientations, in a 0.630 (3):0.370 (3) ratio for MiPT and a 0.775 (5):0.225 (5) ratio for 4-HO-MiPT. In both extended structures, N-H⋯O and O-H⋯O hydrogen bonds generate infinite two-dimensional networks.

raw_json:
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authors: Morita I., Oyama H., Tanaka R., Kikura-Hanajiri R., Kobayashi N.
journal: Clinica Chimica Acta
publication_date: 2019-05-31
doi: 10.1016/j.cca.2019.03.139
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2019.03.139
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1016/j.cca.2019.03.139","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
Generation of monoclonal antibodies for on-site analysis of psilocin and psilocybin in hallucinogenic mushrooms


authors: Chadeayne AR, Golen JA, Manke DR.
publication_date: 2019-05-30
doi: 10.1107/s2056989019007370
pubmed_id: 31391991
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1107/s2056989019007370
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
title:
Bis(4-acet-oxy-N,N-di-methyl-tryptammonium) fumarate: a new crystalline form of psilacetin, an alternative to psilocybin as a psilocin prodrug.

abstract:
The title compound (systematic name: bis-{2-[4-(acet-yloxy)-1H-indol-3-yl]ethan-1-aminium} but-2-enedioate), 2C14H19N2O2 +·C4H2O4 2-, has a single protonated psilacetin cation and one half of a fumarate dianion in the asymmetric unit. There are N-H⋯O hydrogen bonds between the ammonium H atoms and the fumarate O atoms, as well as N-H⋯O hydrogen bonds between the indole H atoms and the fumarate O atoms. The hydrogen bonds hold the ions together in infinite one-dimensional chains along [111].

raw_json:
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publication_date: 2019-05-31
doi: 10.1038/s41386-019-0360-5
pubmed_id: 30846853
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-019-0360-5
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Receptor Pharmacology
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:04
title:
Correction: Psychedelic effects of psilocybin correlate with serotonin 2A receptor occupancy and plasma psilocin levels.

authors:
Madsen MK, Fisher PM, Burmester D, Dyssegaard A, Stenbæk DS, Kristiansen S, Johansen SS, Lehel S, Linnet K, Svarer C, Erritzoe D, Ozenne B, Knudsen GM.

abstract:
The original version of this article contained an error in the labelling of Figures 2 and 3. While the captions and figures themselves are correct, in order to correspond with the in-text references, they have now been re-numbered in both the PDF and HTML versions of the article.

raw_json:
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publication_date: 2019-01-25
doi: 10.1038/s41386-019-0324-9
pubmed_id: 30685771
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-019-0324-9
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Depression,Receptor Pharmacology,Healthy Volunteers
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:01
title:
Psychedelic effects of psilocybin correlate with serotonin 2A receptor occupancy and plasma psilocin levels.

authors:
Madsen MK, Fisher PM, Burmester D, Dyssegaard A, Stenbæk DS, Kristiansen S, Johansen SS, Lehel S, Linnet K, Svarer C, Erritzoe D, Ozenne B, Knudsen GM.

abstract:
The main psychedelic component of magic mushrooms is psilocybin, which shows promise as a treatment for depression and other mental disorders. Psychedelic effects are believed to emerge through stimulation of serotonin 2A receptors (5-HT2ARs) by psilocybin's active metabolite, psilocin. We here report for the first time the relationship between intensity of psychedelic effects, cerebral 5-HT2AR occupancy and plasma levels of psilocin in humans. Eight healthy volunteers underwent positron emission tomography (PET) scans with the 5-HT2AR agonist radioligand [11C]Cimbi-36: one at baseline and one or two additional scans on the same day after a single oral intake of psilocybin (3-30 mg). 5-HT2AR occupancy was calculated as the percent change in cerebral 5-HT2AR binding relative to baseline. Subjective psychedelic intensity and plasma psilocin levels were measured during the scans. Relations between subjective intensity, 5-HT2AR occupancy, and plasma psilocin levels were modeled using non-linear regression. Psilocybin intake resulted in dose-related 5-HT2AR occupancies up to 72%; plasma psilocin levels and 5-HT2AR occupancy conformed to a single-site binding model. Subjective intensity was correlated with both 5-HT2AR occupancy and psilocin levels as well as questionnaire scores. We report for the first time that intake of psilocybin leads to significant 5-HT2AR occupancy in the human brain, and that both psilocin plasma levels and 5-HT2AR occupancy are closely associated with subjective intensity ratings, strongly supporting that stimulation of 5-HT2AR is a key determinant for the psychedelic experience. Important for clinical studies, psilocin time-concentration curves varied but psilocin levels were closely associated with psychedelic experience.

keywords:
Brain, Humans, Carbon Radioisotopes, Benzylamines, Phenethylamines, Receptor, Serotonin, 5-HT2A, Hallucinogens, Positron-Emission Tomography, Protein Binding, Adult, Female, Male, Serotonin 5-HT2 Receptor Agonists, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"30685771","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


journal: European Neuropsychopharmacology
publication_date: 2018-12-31
doi: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2018.11.474
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2018.11.474
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Receptor Pharmacology
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
Psilocybin occupancy of brain serotonin 2A receptors correlates with psilocin levels and subjective experience: a [11C]Cimbi-36 PET study in humans

authors:
Madsen M.K., Burmester D., Stenbæk D.S., Kristiansen S., Dyssegaard A., Lehel S., Linnet K., Johansen S.S., Svarer C., Ozenne B., Erritzøe D., Fisher P.M., Knudsen G.M.

raw_json:
{"doi":"10.1016/j.euroneuro.2018.11.474","reference_dois":["10.1177/0269881116675513","10.1124/pr.115.011478"],"reference_count":4}


authors: Horsley RR, Páleníček T, Kolin J, Valeš K.
publication_date: 2018-08-31
doi: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000394
pubmed_id: 29537989
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1097/fbp.0000000000000394
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Anxiety,Receptor Pharmacology,Microdosing
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:04
title:
Psilocin and ketamine microdosing: effects of subchronic intermittent microdoses in the elevated plus-maze in male Wistar rats.

abstract:
Short-term moderate doses of serotonergic and dissociative hallucinogens can be useful in the treatment of anxiety. Recently, a trend has developed for long-term intermittent 'microdosing' (usually one-tenth of a 'full' active dose), with reports of long-lasting relief from anxiety and related disorders; however, there is no scientific evidence for the efficacy of therapeutic microdosing nor to show its lasting effects. The objective of this study was to test for lasting effects on anxiety in rats after microdosing with ketamine or psilocin. Over 6 days, Wistar rats (N=40) were administered ketamine (0.5 or 3 mg/kg), psilocin (0.05 or 0.075 mg/kg), or saline on three occasions. A5-min elevated plus-maze test was conducted 48 h after the final drug treatment (n=8). Dependent variables were entries (frequency), spent time (%), and distance traveled (cm) in each zone, as well as total frequency of rears, stretch-attend postures, and head dips. Statistical analyses of drug effects used separate independent one-way analysis of variance and pair-wise comparisons using independent t-tests. Statistical effects were modest or borderline and were most consistent with a mildly anxiogenic profile, which was significant at lower doses; however, this conclusion remains tentative. The lower doses of ketamine and psilocin produced comparable effects (to one another) across each variable, as did the higher doses. This pattern of effects may suggest a common (e.g. neurotransmitter/receptor) mechanism. We conclude that microdosing with hallucinogens for therapeutic purposes might be counter-productive; however, more research is needed to confirm our findings and to establish their translational relevance to clinical 'psychedelic' therapy.

keywords:
Animals, Rats, Rats, Wistar, Ketamine, Excitatory Amino Acid Antagonists, Hallucinogens, Maze Learning, Locomotion, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Time Factors, Male, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"29537989","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Metabolism of psilocybin and psilocin: clinical and forensic toxicological relevance.
authors: Dinis-Oliveira RJ.
publication_date: 2017-01-30
doi: 10.1080/03602532.2016.1278228
pubmed_id: 28074670
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1080/03602532.2016.1278228
keywords: Humans, Hallucinogens, Prodrugs, Metabolomics, Psilocybin
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Pharmacology,Receptor Pharmacology,Review Article,Metabolomics
study_type: Review Article
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:01
abstract:
Psilocybin and psilocin are controlled substances in many countries. These are the two main hallucinogenic compounds of the "magic mushrooms" and both act as agonists or partial agonists at 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)2A subtype receptors. During the last few years, psilocybin and psilocin have gained therapeutic relevance but considerable physiological variability between individuals that can influence dose-response and toxicological profile has been reported. This review aims to discuss metabolism of psilocybin and psilocin, by presenting all major and minor psychoactive metabolites. Psilocybin is primarily a pro-drug that is dephosphorylated by alkaline phosphatase to active metabolite psilocin. This last is then further metabolized, psilocin-O-glucuronide being the main urinary metabolite with clinical and forensic relevance in diagnosis.

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"28074670","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Bartolucci Silvia, Mari Michele, Di Gregorio Giovanni, Piersanti Giovanni
journal: ChemInform
publication_date: 2016-06-30
doi: 10.1002/chin.201633131
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/chin.201633131
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: Receptor Pharmacology
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1002/chin.201633131","reference_dois":["10.1016/j.tet.2016.03.007"],"reference_count":1}
title:
ChemInform Abstract: Observations Concerning the Synthesis of Tryptamine Homologues and Branched Tryptamine Derivatives via the Borrowing Hydrogen Process: Synthesis of Psilocin, Bufotenin, and Serotonin.

abstract:
AbstractThe selective indole alkylation reaction applying the Ir-catalyzed-borrowing hydrogen methodology and using amino alcohols (II), (V), (VII) as suitable nitrogen-containing electrophiles is reported.


publication_date: 2016-03-22
doi: 10.1016/j.jpba.2016.03.043
pubmed_id: 27021629
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2016.03.043
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:02
title:
DNA-based taxonomic identification of basidiospores in hallucinogenic mushrooms cultivated in "grow-kits" seized by the police: LC-UV quali-quantitative determination of psilocybin and psilocin.

authors:
Gambaro V, Roda G, Visconti GL, Arnoldi S, Casagni E, Dell'Acqua L, Farè F, Paladino E, Rusconi C, Arioli S, Mora D.

abstract:
The taxonomic identification of the biological material contained in the hallucinogenic mushrooms culture media, was carried out using a DNA-based approach, thus highlighting the usefulness of this approach in the forensic identification of illegal samples also when they are present as basidiospores mixed in culture media and spore-bearing fruiting body are not present. This approach is very useful as it allows the unequivocal identification of potentially illicit material before the cultivation and it enables to stop the material to the Customs and to destroy it due to its dangerousness without cultivating the "grow-kits" and without instructing a criminal case. In fact, even if psilocin and psilocybin and the whole mushrooms are illegal in many countries, there is no specific indication in the law about the so called "grow-kits", containing the spores. To confirm the data obtained by the taxonomic identification, a simple, reliable, efficient LC-UV method, using tryptamine as internal standard, suitable for the forensic quali-quantitative determination of psilocin and psilocybin in hallucinogenic mushroom was optimized, validated and applied to the mushrooms grown after the cultivation of the grow-kits seized by the judicial authority, with the authorization of the Ministry of Health. A cation exchange column was used in a gradient elution mode (Phase A: 50mMK2HPO4; 100mM NaCl pH=3 Phase B: methanol). The developed method was linear over the calibration range with a R(2)>0.9992 for both the analytes. The detection and quantification limits were respectively 0.01 and 0.1μg/mL for psilocybin and 0.05μg/mL and 0.1μg/mL for psilocin and the intra- and inter-day precision was satisfactory (coefficients of variation

keywords:
Basidiomycota, DNA, Hallucinogens, Chromatography, Liquid, Spectrophotometry, Ultraviolet, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"27021629","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Sex differences and serotonergic mechanisms in the behavioural effects of psilocin.
authors: Tylš F, Páleníček T, Kadeřábek L, Lipski M, Kubešová A, Horáček J.
publication_date: 2016-05-31
doi: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000198
pubmed_id: 26461483
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1097/fbp.0000000000000198
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Pharmacology,Mechanism of Action,Receptor Pharmacology,Clinical Trial
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:03
abstract:
Psilocybin has recently attracted a great deal of attention as a clinical research and therapeutic tool. The aim of this paper is to bridge two major knowledge gaps regarding its behavioural pharmacology - sex differences and the underlying receptor mechanisms. We used psilocin (0.25, 1 and 4 mg/kg), an active metabolite of psilocybin, in two behavioural paradigms - the open-field test and prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the acoustic startle reaction. Sex differences were evaluated with respect to the phase of the female cycle. The contribution of serotonin receptors in the behavioural action was tested in male rats with selective serotonin receptor antagonists: 5-HT1A receptor antagonist (WAY100635 1 mg/kg), 5-HT2A receptor antagonist (MDL100907 0.5 mg/kg), 5-HT2B receptor antagonist (SB215505 1 mg/kg) and 5-HT2C receptor antagonist (SB242084 1 mg/kg). Psilocin induced dose-dependent inhibition of locomotion and suppression of normal behaviour in rats (behavioural serotonin syndrome, impaired PPI). The effects were more pronounced in male rats than in females. The inhibition of locomotion was normalized by 5-HT1A and 5-HT2B/C antagonists; however, PPI was not affected significantly by these antagonists. Our findings highlight an important issue of sex-specific reactions to psilocin and that apart from 5-HT2A-mediated effects 5-HT1A and 5-HT2C/B receptors also play an important role. These findings have implications for recent clinical trials.

keywords:
Animals, Rats, Rats, Wistar, Serotonin, Receptors, Serotonin, Serotonin Antagonists, Hallucinogens, Sex Factors, Estrous Cycle, Locomotion, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Female, Male, Reflex, Startle, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"26461483","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Bartolucci Silvia, Mari Michele, Di Gregorio Giovanni, Piersanti Giovanni
journal: Tetrahedron
publication_date: 2016-04-30
doi: 10.1016/j.tet.2016.03.007
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tet.2016.03.007
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: Receptor Pharmacology
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
Observations concerning the synthesis of tryptamine homologues and branched tryptamine derivatives via the borrowing hydrogen process: synthesis of psilocin, bufotenin, and serotonin

raw_json:
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authors: Nagy Julia, Veress Tibor
journal: Journal of Forensic Research
publication_date: 2015-12-31
doi: 10.4172/2157-7145.1000356
source_url: https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7145.1000356
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Drug Interactions
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.4172/2157-7145.1000356","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
HPLC Analysis of Hallucinogenic Mushroom Alkaloids (Psilocin and Psilocybin) Applying Hydrophilic Interaction Chromatography (HILIC)


authors: Spain A, Howarth C, Khrapitchev AA, Sharp T, Sibson NR, Martin C.
publication_date: 2015-07-16
doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.07.018
pubmed_id: 26192543
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.07.018
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Brain Imaging,Receptor Pharmacology,Aging,Animal Study
study_type: Animal Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:03
title:
Neurovascular and neuroimaging effects of the hallucinogenic serotonin receptor agonist psilocin in the rat brain.

abstract:
The development of pharmacological magnetic resonance imaging (phMRI) has presented the opportunity for investigation of the neurophysiological effects of drugs in vivo. Psilocin, a hallucinogen metabolised from psilocybin, was recently reported to evoke brain region-specific, phMRI signal changes in humans. The present study investigated the effects of psilocin in a rat model using phMRI and then probed the relationship between neuronal and haemodynamic responses using a multimodal measurement preparation. Psilocin (2 mg/kg or 0.03 mg/kg i.v.) or vehicle was administered to rats (N=6/group) during either phMRI scanning or concurrent imaging of cortical blood flow and recording of local field potentials. Compared to vehicle controls psilocin (2 mg/kg) evoked phMRI signal increases in a number of regions including olfactory and limbic areas and elements of the visual system. PhMRI signal decreases were seen in other regions including somatosensory and motor cortices. Investigation of neurovascular coupling revealed that whilst neuronal responses (local field potentials) to sensory stimuli were decreased in amplitude by psilocin administration, concurrently measured haemodynamic responses (cerebral blood flow) were enhanced. The present findings show that psilocin evoked region-specific changes in phMRI signals in the rat, confirming recent human data. However, the results also suggest that the haemodynamic signal changes underlying phMRI responses reflect changes in both neuronal activity and neurovascular coupling. This highlights the importance of understanding the neurovascular effects of pharmacological manipulations for interpreting haemodynamic neuroimaging data.

keywords:
Brain, Vibrissae, Animals, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, Oxygen, Hallucinogens, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Brain Mapping, Electrodes, Implanted, Cerebrovascular Circulation, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Male, Hemodynamics, Touch Perception, Psilocybin

raw_json:
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authors: Zhuk O, Jasicka-Misiak I, Poliwoda A, Kazakova A, Godovan VV, Halama M, Wieczorek PP.
publication_date: 2015-03-26
doi: 10.3390/toxins7041018
pubmed_id: 25826052
source_url: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins7041018
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Receptor Pharmacology,Animal Study,Toxicity
study_type: Animal Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:03
title:
Research on acute toxicity and the behavioral effects of methanolic extract from psilocybin mushrooms and psilocin in mice.

abstract:
The pharmacological activities and acute toxicity of the psilocin (PC) and dried residues of the crude extracts of psychotropic mushrooms were investigated in mice. The hallucinogenic substances were effectively isolated, by using methanol, from the species of Psilocybe semilanceata and Pholiotina cyanopus, that were collected in the north-east region of Poland. The chemical analysis of these extracts, which was performed by liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry detection (LC-MS), indicated the presence of psilocin and other hallucinogenic substances, including indolealkylamines and their phosphorylated analogues. When the pure psilocin or fungal extracts were used, slight differences in determined LD50 values were observed. However, the application of PC evoked the highest level of toxicity (293.07 mg/kg) compared to the activity of extracts from Ph. cyanopus and P. semilanceata, where the level of LD50 was 316.87 mg/kg and 324.37 mg/kg, respectively. Furthermore, the behavioral test, which considered the head-twitching response (HTR), was used to assess the effects of the studied psychotropic factors on the serotonergic system. Both, the fungal extracts and psilocin evoked characteristic serotoninergic effects depending on the dose administered to mice, acting as an agonist/partial agonist on the serotonergic system. A dose of 200 mg/kg 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) induced spontaneous head-twitching in mice (100% effect), as a result of the formation of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) in the brain. Compared to the activity of 5-HTP, the intraperitoneal administration of 1mg/kg of psilocin or hallucinogenic extracts of studied mushrooms (Ph. cyanopus and P. semilanceata) reduced the number of head-twitch responses of about 46% and 30%, respectively. In contrast, the administration of PC exhibited a reduction of about 60% in HTR numbers.

keywords:
Animals, Animals, Outbred Strains, Mice, Agaricales, Methanol, Hallucinogens, Complex Mixtures, Solvents, Lethal Dose 50, Behavior, Animal, Female, Psilocybin

raw_json:
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authors: Sakashita Y, Abe K, Katagiri N, Kambe T, Saitoh T, Utsunomiya I, Horiguchi Y, Taguchi K.
publication_date: 2014-10-23
doi: 10.1248/bpb.b14-00315
pubmed_id: 25342005
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1248/bpb.b14-00315
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Mechanism of Action,Receptor Pharmacology
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:03
title:
Effect of psilocin on extracellular dopamine and serotonin levels in the mesoaccumbens and mesocortical pathway in awake rats.

abstract:
Psilocin (3-[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl]-1H-indol-4-ol) is a hallucinogenic component of the Mexican mushroom Psilocybe mexicana and a skeletal serotonin (5-HT) analogue. Psilocin is the active metabolite of psilocybin (3-[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl]-1H-indol-4-yl dihydrogen phosphate). In the present study, we examined the effects of systemically administered psilocin on extracellular dopamine and 5-HT concentrations in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), nucleus accumbens, and medial prefrontal cortex of the dopaminergic pathway in awake rats using in vivo microdialysis. Intraperitoneal administration of psilocin (5, 10 mg/kg) significantly increased extracellular dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens. Psilocin did not affect the extracellular 5-HT level in the nucleus accumbens. Conversely, systemic administration of psilocin (10 mg/kg) significantly increased extracellular 5-HT levels in the medial prefrontal cortex of rats, but dopamine was decreased in this region. However, neither extracellular dopamine nor 5-HT levels in the VTA were altered by administration of psilocin. Behaviorally, psilocin significantly increased the number of head twitches. Thus, psilocin affects the dopaminergic system in the nucleus accumbens. In the serotonergic system, psilocin contribute to a crucial effect in the medial prefrontal cortex. The present data suggest that psilocin increased both the extracellular dopamine and 5-HT concentrations in the mesoaccumbens and/or mesocortical pathway.

keywords:
Ventral Tegmental Area, Nucleus Accumbens, Prefrontal Cortex, Animals, Rats, Wistar, Dopamine, Serotonin, Hallucinogens, Male, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"25342005","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


journal: Journal of Analytical &amp; Bioanalytical Techniques
publication_date: 2014-12-31
doi: 10.4172/2155-9872.1000277
source_url: https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-9872.1000277
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.4172/2155-9872.1000277","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
Taxonomic Identification of Hallucinogenic Mushrooms Seized on the Illegal Market Using a DNA-Based Approach and LC/MS-MS Determination of Psilocybin and Psilocin


title: Analysis of psilocin, bufotenine and LSD in hair.
authors: Martin R, Schürenkamp J, Gasse A, Pfeiffer H, Köhler H.
publication_date: 2014-12-22
doi: 10.1093/jat/bku141
pubmed_id: 25540060
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1093/jat/bku141
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
abstract:
A method for the simultaneous extraction of the hallucinogens psilocin, bufotenine, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) as well as iso-LSD, nor-LSD and O-H-LSD from hair with hydrochloride acid and methanol is presented. Clean-up of the hair extracts is performed with solid phase extraction using a mixed-mode cation exchanger. Extracts are measured with liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. The method was successfully validated according to the guidelines of the 'Society of Toxicological and Forensic Chemistry' (GTFCh). To obtain reference material hair was soaked in a solution of the analytes in dimethyl sulfoxide/methanol to allow incorporation into the hair. These fortified hair samples were used for method development and can be employed as quality controls.

keywords:
Hair, Humans, Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, Bufotenin, Chromatography, Liquid, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Solid Phase Extraction, Limit of Detection, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"25540060","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: 14C-Psilocin tissue distribution in pregnant rats after intravenous administration
authors: Law Francis, Poon Grace, Chui Y. C., He Shao-Xiong
journal: Functional Foods in Health and Disease
publication_date: 2014-07-26
doi: 10.31989/ffhd.v4i6.9
source_url: https://doi.org/10.31989/ffhd.v4i6.9
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: End-of-Life Distress,Animal Study
study_type: Animal Study
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.31989/ffhd.v4i6.9","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
abstract:
Background: Many species of hallucinogenic mushrooms have been found in the genus Psilocybe. The main psychoactive chemicals of Psilocybe mushrooms are psilocin and its phosphoryloxy derivative, psilocybin. In addition to its psychedelic effects, psilocybin is an effective agent to lift the mood of depressed patients with terminal cancers.Objective: To study the dispositional kinetics of 14C-psilocin in pregnant rats after intravenous injection, to calculate tissue dose surrogates i.e., tissue 14C concentration and area under the concentration-time curve using the experimental data, to quantify trans-placental passage of psilocin and/or its metabolites, and to identify new psilocin metabolite(s) in rat urine.Methods: A group of 15 pregnant Wistar rats weighing between 0.30-0.36 kg was used in the study. Each rat was given a single dose of 7.5 mg/kg 14C-psilocini.v. Three rats were randomly selected and sacrificed at 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, and 8.0 hr post-dosing. The maternal and fetal tissues were quickly removed and the radioactivity in these tissues determined by liquid scintillation counting.In a separate study, urine samples were collected from 6 male Wistar rats after administering 15 mg/kg of unlabeled psilocin i.p. The urine samples were collected and extracted by chloroform-methanol (9:1 v/v) and analyzed using a gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer.Results: 14C-Psilocin crossed the placental barrier of pregnant rats readily after i.v. administration; maternal tissue 14C concentrations were found to be much higher than those in fetal tissues. The areas under the curve for maternal tissues also were much higher than the fetal tissues. In general, maternal tissues could be divided into the fast eliminating organ group, which included the brain (elimination half-life 13 hr). A new psilocin metabolite tentatively identified as dihydroxyindoleacetic acid was found in the urine.Conclusion: Our study showed that psilocin readily crossed the placental and blood-brain barriers of pregnant rats. Because psilocin was eliminated slowly from the fetal tissues of rats, human consumption of magic mushrooms should be avoided during pregnancy. Key words: magic mushrooms, psilocin, placental barrier, pregnant rats


title: The effect of psilocin on memory acquisition, retrieval, and consolidation in the rat.
authors: Rambousek L, Palenicek T, Vales K, Stuchlik A.
publication_date: 2014-05-15
doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00180
pubmed_id: 24904332
source_url: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00180
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Receptor Pharmacology,Emotional Processing,Animal Study
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:03
abstract:
The involvement of the serotonin system in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia has been elucidated by experiments with hallucinogens. Application of a hallucinogen to humans leads to changes in perception, cognition, emotions, and induction of psychotic-like symptoms that resemble symptoms of schizophrenia. In rodent studies, their acute administration affects sensorimotor gating, locomotor activity, social behavior, and cognition including working memory, the phenotypes are considered as an animal model of schizophrenia. The complexity and singularity of human cognition raises questions about the validity of animal models utilizing agonists of 5-HT2A receptors. The present study thus investigated the effect of psilocin on memory acquisition, reinforced retrieval, and memory consolidation in rats. Psilocin is a main metabolite of psilocybin acting as an agonist at 5-HT2A receptors with a contribution of 5-HT2C and 5-HT1A receptors. First, we tested the effect of psilocin on the acquisition of a Carousel maze, a spatial task requiring navigation using distal cues, attention, and cognitive coordination. Psilocin significantly impaired the acquisition of the Carousel maze at both doses (1 and 4 mg/kg). The higher dose of psilocin blocked the learning processes even in an additional session when the rats received only saline. Next, we examined the effect of psilocin on reinforced retrieval and consolidation in the Morris water maze (MWM). The dose of 4 mg/kg disrupted reinforced retrieval in the MWM. However, the application of a lower dose was without any significant effect. Finally, neither the low nor high dose of psilocin injected post-training caused a deficit in memory consolidation in the MWM. Taken together, the psilocin dose dependently impaired the acquisition of the Carousel maze and reinforced retrieval in MWM; however, it had no effect on memory consolidation.

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"24904332","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Synthesis, hydrolysis and stability of psilocin glucuronide.
authors: Martin R, Schürenkamp J, Pfeiffer H, Lehr M, Köhler H.
publication_date: 2014-01-14
doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.01.006
pubmed_id: 24513688
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.01.006
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:04
abstract:
A two-step synthesis of psilocin glucuronide (PCG), the main metabolite of psilocin, with methyl 2,3,4-tri-O-isobutyryl-1-O-trichloroacetimidoyl-α-d-glucopyranuronate is reported. With the synthesized PCG, hydrolysis conditions in serum and urine were optimized. Escherichia coli proved to be a better enzyme source for β-glucuronidase than Helix pomatia. It was essential to add ascorbic acid to serum samples to protect psilocin during incubation. Furthermore the stability of PCG and psilocin was compared as stability data are the basis for forensic interpretation of measurements. PCG showed a greater long-term stability after six months in deep frozen serum and urine samples than psilocin. The short-term stability of PCG for one week in whole blood at room temperature and in deep frozen samples was also better than that of psilocin. Therefore, PCG can be considered to be more stable than the labile psilocin and should always be included if psilocin is analyzed in samples.

keywords:
Humans, Glucuronides, Glucuronidase, Hallucinogens, Specimen Handling, Drug Stability, Molecular Structure, Hydrolysis, Freezing, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"24513688","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Tyls F., Palenicek T., Novakova P., Kaderabek L., Fujakova M., Kubesova A., Horacek J.
journal: European Neuropsychopharmacology
publication_date: 2014-02-28
doi: 10.1016/s0924-977x(14)70111-7
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0924-977x(14)70111-7
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: Brain Imaging,Receptor Pharmacology,Animal Study
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1016/s0924-977x(14)70111-7","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
P.4.022 The impact of serotonin system modulation on behavior and quantitative EEG in an animal model of psychosis induced by psilocin


authors: Stebelska K.
publication_date: 2013-07-31
doi: 10.1097/ftd.0b013e31828741a5
pubmed_id: 23851905
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1097/ftd.0b013e31828741a5
keywords: Body Fluids, Animals, Humans, Agaricales, Ibotenic Acid, Muscimol, Hallucinogens, Psilocybin
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Mechanism of Action,Review Article,Safety,Toxicity
study_type: Review Article
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:04
title:
Fungal hallucinogens psilocin, ibotenic acid, and muscimol: analytical methods and biologic activities.

abstract:
Psychoactive drugs of fungal origin, psilocin, ibotenic acid, and muscimol among them have been proposed for recreational use and popularized since the 1960s, XX century. Despite their well-documented neurotoxicity, they reached reputation of being safe and nonaddictive. Scientific efforts to find any medical application for these hallucinogens in psychiatry, psychotherapy, and even for religious rituals support are highly controversial. Even if they show any healing potential, their usage in psychotherapy is in some cases inadequate and may additionally harm seriously suffering patients. Hallucinogens are thought to reduce cognitive functions. However, in case of indolealkylamines, such as psilocin, some recent findings suggest their ability to improve perception and mental skills, what would motivate the consumption of "magic mushrooms." The present article offers an opportunity to find out what are the main symptoms of intoxication with mushrooms containing psilocybin/psilocin, muscimol, and ibotenic acid. The progress in analytical methods for detection of them in fungal material, food, and body fluids is reviewed. Findings on the mechanisms of their biologic activity are summarized. Additionally, therapeutic potential of these fungal psychoactive compounds and health risk associated with their abuse are discussed.

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"23851905","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Martin R, Schürenkamp J, Gasse A, Pfeiffer H, Köhler H.
publication_date: 2012-11-26
doi: 10.1007/s00414-012-0796-1
pubmed_id: 23183899
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-012-0796-1
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Toxicity
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
title:
Determination of psilocin, bufotenine, LSD and its metabolites in serum, plasma and urine by SPE-LC-MS/MS.

abstract:
A validated method for the simultaneous determination of psilocin, bufotenine, lysergic acid diethylamide and its metabolites in serum, plasma and urine using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization/tandem mass spectrometry was developed. During the solid-phase extraction procedure with polymeric mixed-mode cation exchange columns, the unstable analytes were protected by ascorbic acid, drying with nitrogen and exclusion of light. The limits of detection and quantitation for all analytes were low. Recovery was ≥86 % for all analytes and no significant matrix effects were observed. Interday and intraday imprecisions at different concentrations ranged from 1.1 to 8.2 % relative standard deviation, bias was within ±5.3 %. Processed samples were stable in the autosampler for at least 2 days. Furthermore, freeze/thaw and long-term stability were investigated. The method was successfully applied to authentic serum and urine samples.

keywords:
Humans, Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, Bufotenin, Hallucinogens, Specimen Handling, Chromatography, Liquid, Spectrometry, Mass, Electrospray Ionization, Sensitivity and Specificity, Case-Control Studies, Reproducibility of Results, Single-Blind Method, Adult, Middle Aged, Female, Male, Solid Phase Extraction, Forensic Toxicology, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"23183899","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Chen J, Li M, Yan X, Wu E, Zhu H, Lee KJ, Chu VM, Zhan L, Lee W, Kang JS.
publication_date: 2011-07-17
doi: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2011.07.003
pubmed_id: 21820980
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2011.07.003
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Pharmacology,Animal Study
study_type: Animal Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
title:
Determining the pharmacokinetics of psilocin in rat plasma using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with a photodiode array detector after orally administering an extract of Gymnopilus spectabilis.

abstract:
This study established ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with a photodiode array detector for determining psilocin and its pharmacokinetics in rat plasma after orally administering an extract of Gymnopilus spectabilis. The extract was separated on an ODS C18 column (2.3 μm, 100 mm × 2.1 mm I.D.) by gradient elution with (A) water containing 50mM AcONH(4) and (B) acetonitrile. The wavelength was set at 265 nm and the injection volume was 10 μL. Under these conditions, the calibration curve was linear over the concentration range 0.2-20 μg/mL with a correlation coefficient of r(2)=0.9992. The inter- and intraday precision levels were less than 7% and the accuracies (%) were within the range 92.0-102.5%. The method was sufficiently valid to be applied to a pharmacokinetics study of psilocin in rat plasma. The pharmacokinetic parameters of psilocin in rat plasma after the oral administration of a G. spectabilis extract were as follows: C(max), 0.43 ± 0.12 μg/mL; T(max), 90 ± 2.1 min; AUC(0→t), 1238.3 ± 96.4 (μg/mL) min; and T(1/2), 117.3 ± 40.3 min.

keywords:
Animals, Rats, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, Agaricales, Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid, Administration, Oral, Area Under Curve, Sensitivity and Specificity, Reproducibility of Results, Drug Stability, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"21820980","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Shoda T, Fukuhara K, Goda Y, Okuda H.
publication_date: 2011-02-01
doi: 10.1002/dta.244
pubmed_id: 21960543
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.244
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Animal Study
study_type: Animal Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
title:
Enzyme-assisted synthesis of the glucuronide conjugate of psilocin, an hallucinogenic component of magic mushrooms.

abstract:
An enzyme-assisted synthesis of psilocin glucuronide (PCG), a metabolite excreted in the urine of magic mushroom (MM) users, is described. In the presence of Aroclor 1254 pretreated rat liver microsomes, psilocin and the cofactor UDPGA were incubated for 20 h. Purification by HPLC gave PCG in 19% yield (3.6 mg). The compound structure was characterized by MS and NMR. The milligram amounts of PCG produced by this method will allow the direct identification and quantification of PCG in the urine of MM users.

keywords:
Microsomes, Liver, Animals, Rats, Agaricales, Glucuronides, Hallucinogens, Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid, Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy, Mass Spectrometry, Chlorodiphenyl (54% Chlorine), Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"21960543","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Hu Chunmei, Qin Hua, Cui Yuxin, Jia Yanxing
journal: ChemInform
publication_date: 2010-03-01
doi: 10.1002/chin.201009186
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/chin.201009186
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1002/chin.201009186","reference_dois":["10.1016/j.tet.2009.09.050"],"reference_count":1}
title:
ChemInform Abstract: Palladium-Catalyzed Synthesis of Tryptamines and Tryptamine Homologues: Synthesis of Psilocin.

abstract:
AbstractChemInform is a weekly Abstracting Service, delivering concise information at a glance that was extracted from about 100 leading journals. To access a ChemInform Abstract of an article which was published elsewhere, please select a “Full Text” option. The original article is trackable via the “References” option.


title: Palladium-catalyzed synthesis of tryptamines and tryptamine homologues: synthesis of psilocin
authors: Hu Chunmei, Qin Hua, Cui Yuxin, Jia Yanxing
journal: Tetrahedron
publication_date: 2009-10-31
doi: 10.1016/j.tet.2009.09.050
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tet.2009.09.050
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json:
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title: Unifying electron transfer mechanism for psilocybin and psilocin.
authors: Kovacic P.
publication_date: 2009-07-13
doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2009.06.022
pubmed_id: 19604649
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2009.06.022
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Oxidative Stress
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
keywords:
Humans, Substance-Related Disorders, Reactive Oxygen Species, Electron Transport, Oxidation-Reduction, Oxidative Stress, Electrochemistry, Models, Biological, Models, Chemical, Psilocybin, Illicit Drugs

raw_json:
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authors: Kamata Tooru, Nishikawa Mayumi, Katagi Munehiro, Tsuchihashi Hitoshi
journal: Forensic Toxicology
publication_date: 2006-06-30
doi: 10.1007/s11419-006-0006-2
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11419-006-0006-2
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
Direct detection of serum psilocin glucuronide by LC/MS and LC/MS/MS: time-courses of total and free (unconjugated) psilocin concentrations in serum specimens of a “magic mushroom” user

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title: Psilocin identified in a DUID investigation.
authors: Tiscione NB, Miller MI.
publication_date: 2006-05-31
doi: 10.1093/jat/30.5.342
pubmed_id: 16839473
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1093/jat/30.5.342
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
abstract:
Psilocin was identified in a urine specimen collected during a routine driving under the influence of drugs investigation, the first for this laboratory. The subject did not exhibit any response to an automobile crash, indicating the he may have been unaware of the severity of the situation or his immediate surroundings. The urine specimen gave a positive result on a fluorescence polarization immunoassay amphetamine/methamphetamine assay, and psilocin was determined to have 1.3% cross-reactivity at 50 mg/L. Psilocin was confirmed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry following an extraction for acidic, neutral, and basic drugs. Hydrolysis and derivatization techniques were not employed. The urine concentration of psilocin decreased rapidly, although the specimen was maintained at 4 degrees C.

keywords:
Humans, Agaricales, Hallucinogens, Fluorescence Polarization Immunoassay, Substance Abuse Detection, Accidents, Traffic, Automobile Driving, Adult, Male, Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"16839473","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Anastos N, Barnett NW, Pfeffer FM, Lewis SW.
publication_date: 2006-03-31
doi: 10.1016/s1355-0306(06)71579-9
pubmed_id: 17002211
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/s1355-0306(06)71579-9
keywords: Hallucinogens, Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid, Time, Psilocybin
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:04
title:
Investigation into the temporal stability of aqueous standard solutions of psilocin and psilocybin using high performance liquid chromatography.

abstract:
This paper reports an investigation into the temporal stability of aqueous solutions of psilocin and psilocybin reference drug standards over a period of fourteen days. This study was performed using high performance liquid chromatography utilising a (95:5% v/v) methanol: 10 mM ammonium formate, pH 3.5 mobile phase and absorption detection at 269 nm. It was found that the exclusion of light significantly prolonged the useful life of standards, with aqueous solutions of both psilocin and psilocybin being stable over a period of seven days.

raw_json:
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authors: Anastos N, Lewis SW, Barnett NW, Sims DN.
publication_date: 2005-12-31
doi: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2005.00033.x
pubmed_id: 16423222
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2005.00033.x
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:04
title:
The determination of psilocin and psilocybin in hallucinogenic mushrooms by HPLC utilizing a dual reagent acidic potassium permanganate and tris(2,2'-bipyridyl)ruthenium(II) chemiluminescence detection system.

abstract:
This paper describes a procedure for the determination of psilocin and psilocybin in mushroom extracts using high-performance liquid chromatography with postcolumn chemiluminescence detection. A number of extraction methods for psilocin and psilocybin in hallucinogenic mushrooms were investigated, with a simple methanolic extraction being found to be most effective. Psilocin and psilocybin were extracted from a variety of hallucinogenic mushrooms using methanol. The analytes were separated on a C12 column using a (95:5% v/v) methanol:10 mM ammonium formate, pH 3.5 mobile phase with a run time of 5 min. Detection was realized through a dual reagent chemiluminescence detection system of acidic potassium permanganate and tris(2,2'-bipyridyl)ruthenium(II). The chemiluminescence detection system gave improved detectability when compared with UV absorption at 269 nm, with detection limits of 1.2 x 10(-8) and 3.5 x 10(-9) mol/L being obtained for psilocin and psilocybin, respectively. The procedure was applied to the determination of psilocin and psilocybin in three Australian species of hallucinogenic mushroom.

keywords:
Agaricales, Potassium Permanganate, Organometallic Compounds, Hallucinogens, Indicators and Reagents, Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid, Luminescent Measurements, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"16423222","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Palenicek T., Bubenikova V., Votava M.
journal: Behavioural Pharmacology
publication_date: 2005-08-31
doi: 10.1097/00008877-200509001-00236
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1097/00008877-200509001-00236
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: Drug Interactions
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1097/00008877-200509001-00236","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
B31 3,4-METHYLENEDIOXYMETHAPMHETAMINE (MDMA) AND4-OH-DIMETHYLTRYPTAMINE (PSILOCIN) INTERACTION IN RATS: BEHAVIORAL STUDY ON PREPULSE INHIBITION OF ACOUSTIC STARTLE REACTION AND ON LOCOMOTION


authors: Anastos N, Barnett NW, Lewis SW, Gathergood N, Scammells PJ, Sims DN.
publication_date: 2005-07-31
doi: 10.1016/j.talanta.2004.11.038
pubmed_id: 18970175
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2004.11.038
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:04
title:
Determination of psilocin and psilocybin using flow injection analysis with acidic potassium permanganate and tris(2,2'-bipyridyl)ruthenium(II) chemiluminescence detection respectively.

abstract:
A simple, rapid and sensitive method for the determination of psilocin and psilocybin is described. This is the first report on the determination of psilocin and psilocybin using flow injection analysis with acidic potassium permanganate and tris(2,2'-bipyridyl)ruthenium(II) chemiluminescence. The limits of detection (signal-to-noise ratio=3) are 9x10(-10)M and 3x10(-10)M for psilocin and psilocybin, respectively. A concise synthetic route for psilocin in three steps from readily available starting materials is also described. The structures were elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic data.

raw_json:
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authors: Kamata T, Nishikawa M, Katagi M, Tsuchihashi H
journal: Journal of forensic sciences
publication_date: 2005-02-28
pubmed_id: 15813544
source_url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15813544/
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: PubMed
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:20:41
raw_json: {"pubmed_id":"15813544"}
title:
Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometric and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric determination of hallucinogenic indoles psilocin and psilocybin in "magic mushroom" samples.

abstract:
Accurate and sensitive analytical methods for psilocin (PC) and psilocybin (PB), tryptamine-type hallucinogens contained in "magic mushrooms," were investigated using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). The chromatographic separation on an ODS column and mass spectral information gave complete discrimination between PC and PB without derivatization. The mass spectrometric detection had a high sensitivity, and the tandem mass spectrometric detection provided more specificity and accuracy, as well as high sensitivity. The detection limits ranged from 1 to 25 pg by LC-MS in the selected ion monitoring mode, and the intra- and inter-day coefficients of variation were estimated to be 4.21-5.93% by LC-MS-MS in the selected reaction monitoring mode. By applying the present LC-MS-MS technique to four real samples, the contents of PC and PB were found to vary over a wide range (0.60-1.4 and 0.18-3.8 mg/g dry wt. for PC and PB, respectively) between samples.


title: Development of a psilocin immunoassay for serum and blood samples.
authors: Albers C, Köhler H, Lehr M, Brinkmann B, Beike J.
publication_date: 2004-08-02
doi: 10.1007/s00414-004-0469-9
pubmed_id: 15526212
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-004-0469-9
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Addiction,Receptor Pharmacology
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
abstract:
After the immunisation of rabbits with a psilocin-specific immunogen, polyclonal antisera were obtained. With these antisera a competitive, heterogeneous radioimmunoassay for the detection of psilocin was developed. As tracer a derivative of psilocin was synthesised, which contained a tritiated CH(3) group. The antisera showed a specific reaction with psilocin. The cross-reactivity of structurally related endogenous substances like serotonin, tryptophan and tyrosine was below 0.01%. Also common drugs of abuse (Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol, cocaine, morphine, amphetamine) showed negligible cross-reactivity (0.01-2%). Only tricyclic neuroleptics with a (dimethylamino)ethyl side-chain showed some cross-reactivity (20%). Spiked serum and blood samples were analysed with this new immunoassay and the results obtained were compared with the values measured with a validated GC-MS method.

keywords:
Animals, Rabbits, Humans, Hallucinogens, Radioimmunoassay, Sensitivity and Specificity, Substance Abuse Detection, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"15526212","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Beuhler M, Lee DC, Gerkin R.
publication_date: 2004-07-31
doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2004.03.017
pubmed_id: 15278082
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annemergmed.2004.03.017
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: In Vitro Study
study_type: In Vitro Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
title:
The Meixner test in the detection of alpha-amanitin and false-positive reactions caused by psilocin and 5-substituted tryptamines.

abstract:
Study objectiveThe Meixner test has been suggested to identify the presence of alpha-amanitin, one of the toxic compounds in Amanita mushrooms. We attempted to determine the detection limit of the Meixner test for alpha-amanitin and to determine the percentage of positive sample interpretation compared with other mushroom indole compounds.MethodsThis was a 2-part in vitro experiment. In part 1, we applied the Meixner test to a series of dilutions of alpha-amanitin (0 microg, 0.8 microg, 1.0 microg, 2.0 microg, and 4.0 microg) on telephone book paper, which were then presented to 5 blinded emergency physicians. We sought to determine the lowest amount of alpha-amanitin that was universally recognized as positive by the physicians (the detection limit). In the second part, 5 emergency physicians were presented simultaneously with 10 Meixner processed samples, including the mushroom indole compounds alpha-amanitin (2 microg and 10 microg), psilocin (20 microL and 60 microL of mushroom extract), 5-hydroxytryptamine (100 microg and 200 microg), and 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (100 microg and 200 microg), as well as 2 negative controls (20 microL of water and methanol). We determined how likely these other indoles are to be mistaken for a positive alpha-amanitin Meixner reaction result by determining the percentage of positive sample interpretation for each compound and comparing them with the rate for alpha-amanitin. Fisher's exact test was used to determine any significant difference (P

keywords:
Agaricales, Hydrochloric Acid, Tryptamines, Amanitins, False Positive Reactions, Emergency Medicine, Color, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"15278082","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Preparation of Monoclonal Antibodies Reactive to a Hallucinogenic Drug, Psilocin
journal: Journal of Health Science
publication_date: 2003-12-31
doi: 10.1248/jhs.50.600
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1248/jhs.50.600
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
authors:
Yamaguchi Mitsune, Saito Toshiaki, Horiguchi Yoshie, Ogawa Keita, Tsuchiya Yukihiro, Hishinuma Kayoko, Chikuma Toshiyuki, Makino Yukiko, Hojo Hiroshi

raw_json:
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title: Optimized glucuronide hydrolysis for the detection of psilocin in human urine samples.
authors: Kamata T, Nishikawa M, Katagi M, Tsuchihashi H.
publication_date: 2003-10-31
doi: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2003.08.030
pubmed_id: 14581081
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2003.08.030
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Adolescents
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
abstract:
In order to develop a sensitive and reliable analytical method for psilocin (PC) in urine samples, the hydrolysis conditions including the acid, alkaline and enzymatic hydrolyses have been investigated by monitoring not only PC but also psilocin glucuronide (PCG) by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS); PCG was initially identified in a "magic mushroom (MM)" user's urine by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and LC-MS-MS. The proposed conditions optimized for the hydrolysis are as follows: hydrolysis, enzymatic hydrolysis; enzyme, Escherichia coli beta-glucuronidase (5000 units/ml urine); incubation, pH 6 at 37 degrees C for 2h. The complete hydrolysis of PCG in urine was obtained under these conditions, while the enzymatic hydrolyses with three types of beta-glucuronidases originated from bovine liver (Type B-1), Helix pomatia (Type H-1) and Ampullaria provided uncompleted hydrolysis of PCG. Also, neither the acid nor alkaline hydrolysis was found to be applicable. According to the present method, 3.55 microg/ml of psilocin was detected in the "magic mushroom" user's urine after the enzymatic hydrolysis, though psilocin was not detected without hydrolysis.

keywords:
Humans, Glucuronides, Hallucinogens, Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid, Sensitivity and Specificity, Hydrolysis, Adolescent, Female, Mass Spectrometry, Psilocybin

raw_json:
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authors: Shirota O, Hakamata W, Goda Y.
publication_date: 2003-05-31
doi: 10.1021/np030059u
pubmed_id: 12828485
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1021/np030059u
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
title:
Concise large-scale synthesis of psilocin and psilocybin, principal hallucinogenic constituents of "magic mushroom".

abstract:
The concise large-scale syntheses of psilocin (1) and psilocybin (2), the principal hallucinogenic constituents of "magic mushroom", were achieved without chromatographic purification. The key step in the synthesis of 2 was the isolation of the dibenzyl-protected intermediate (7) as a zwitterionic derivative (8), which was completely identified by means of 2D NMR analyses.

keywords:
Agaricales, Hallucinogens, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, Biomolecular, Combinatorial Chemistry Techniques, Molecular Structure, Psilocybin

raw_json:
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authors: Gathergood N, Scammells PJ.
publication_date: 2003-02-28
doi: 10.1021/ol0341039
pubmed_id: 12633106
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1021/ol0341039
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
title:
Preparation of the 4-hydroxytryptamine scaffold via palladium-catalyzed cyclization: a practical and versatile synthesis of psilocin.

abstract:
[reaction: see text] The 4-hydroxytryptamine scaffold of psilocin was successfully prepared via palladium-catalyzed cyclization of protected N-tert-butoxycarbonyl-2-iodo-3-methoxyaniline and an appropriately substituted silyl acetylene. Removal of the protecting groups afforded psilocin in good yield.

raw_json:
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title: Synthesis of a psilocin hapten and a protein-hapten conjugate.
authors: Albers C, Lehr M, Beike J, Köhler H, Brinkmann B.
publication_date: 2002-08-31
doi: 10.1211/002235702320402116
pubmed_id: 12356281
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1211/002235702320402116
keywords: Haptens, Psilocybin
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
abstract:
Derivatives of psilocin with omega-functionalized alkyl spacers in position 1 of the indole ring were synthesized as haptens for use in a radioimmunoassay. Whereas the psilocin analogues with a 3-aminopropyl and a 4-aminobutyl moiety at the indole nitrogen decomposed during synthesis, the analogous 3-carboxypropyl psilocin derivative proved to be stable. This compound was coupled to bovine serum albumin (BSA) using the N-hydroxysuccinimide ester-mediated conjugation. The protein-hapten conjugate was characterized by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry. The mass spectrometry data indicated an average incorporation ratio of 4-5 molecules of psilocin hapten per molecule of BSA.

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authors: Yamada F, Tamura M, Hasegawa A, Somei M.
publication_date: 2001-12-31
doi: 10.1248/cpb.50.92
pubmed_id: 11824592
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1248/cpb.50.92
keywords: Bromine, Formates, Psilocybin
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
title:
Synthetic studies of psilocin analogs having either a formyl group or bromine atom at the 5- or 7-position.

abstract:
Psilocin analogs having either a formyl group (9-12) or a bromine atom (13-18) at the 5- or 7-position have been prepared for the first time. Syntheses of 5- and 7-bromo derivatives of 4-hydroxy- (23, 24, 28) and 4-benzyloxyindole-3-carbaldehyde (19, 25, 29, 30), 4-benzyloxyindole-3-acetonitriles (20, 31), and 4-benzyloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (32, 34, 35) have also been established.

raw_json:
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title: The detection of psilocin in human urine.
authors: Grieshaber AF, Moore KA, Levine B
journal: Journal of forensic sciences
publication_date: 2001-04-30
pubmed_id: 11373000
source_url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11373000/
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Pharmacology
study_type: Other
source_name: PubMed
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:20:41
raw_json: {"pubmed_id":"11373000"}
abstract:
Pharmacokinetic studies of psilocybin in humans have shown the rapid dephosphorylation of psilocybin to psilocin with further conversion to 4-hydroxy-tryptophole (4HT) and 4-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid (4HIAA) in plasma. Our study shows that psilocin also undergoes conjugation and can be found in the urine as the psilocin-glucuronide conjugate. Recoveries after enzymatic hydrolysis of the urine with beta-glucuronidase (Helix Pomatia or E. Coli) when compared to non-hydrolyzed urine confirmed the presence of the glucuronide. Detection of psilocin from hydrolyzed and extracted samples was optimized for GC/MS by derivatization with MSTFA. The method developed allows for the detection of psilocin in urine with a limit of quantitation of 10 ng/mL, based on 5 mL of spiked urine. Using this method, our laboratory has confirmed the presence of psilocin in 6 out of 8 urine samples, with concentrations ranging from 10 ng/mL to greater than 200 ng/mL. Before implementation of the hydrolysis and derivatization steps, our limit of detection was 200 ng/mL, based on spiked urine standards. No case samples were positive without hydrolysis and derivatization.


title: Detection of psilocin in body fluids.
authors: Sticht G, Käferstein H.
publication_date: 2000-08-31
doi: 10.1016/s0379-0738(00)00213-9
pubmed_id: 10978655
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0379-0738(00)00213-9
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Toxicity
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
abstract:
Active compounds of some mushrooms e.g. Psilocybe cubensis, Paneolus subalteatus or Stropharia coronilla, the psychotropic agents psilocybin and psilocin, have hallucinogenic effects. In one case of 'magic mushroom' intake, we had to analyse blood and urine. Psilocin was detected in the urine with REMEDi HS. Most of the psilocin was excreted as the glucuronide. Therefore an enzymatic hydrolysis should be the first step in analysis. Free psilocin was determined at a concentration of 0.23 mg/l while the total amount was 1.76 mg/l urine. The concentration of psilocin in serum was too low for detection with REMEDi HS. We proved a GC-MS-method with d(3)-morphine as internal standard and silylation with MSTFA. Similarly to urine, most of the psilocin in serum was found in the conjugated form. The concentration of free psilocin was 0.018 mg/l, that of total psilocin, 0.052 mg/l serum.

keywords:
Body Fluids, Humans, Glucuronides, Hallucinogens, Chromatography, Ion Exchange, Substance Abuse Detection, Toxicology, Male, Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry, Psilocybin

raw_json:
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title: Panaeolus bisporus - an adventitious fungus in central Europe, rich in psilocin
authors: Senn-Irlet Beatrice, Nyffenegger Adolf, Brenneisen Rudolf
journal: Mycologist
publication_date: 1999-10-31
doi: 10.1016/s0269-915x(99)80107-4
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0269-915x(99)80107-4
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json:
{"doi":"10.1016/s0269-915x(99)80107-4","reference_dois":["10.1515/znc-1988-7-806","10.5962/p.354331","10.1055/s-2007-969526"],"reference_count":7}


authors: Keller T, Schneider A, Regenscheit P, Dirnhofer R, Rucker T, Jaspers J, Kisser W
journal: Journal of Clinical Forensic Medicine
publication_date: 1999-08-31
doi: 10.1016/s1353-1131(99)90073-1
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/s1353-1131(99)90073-1
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1016/s1353-1131(99)90073-1","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
Analysis of psilocybin and psilocin in psilocybe subcubensis Guzman by ion mobility spectrometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry


authors: Nichols David E., Frescas Steward
journal: ChemInform
publication_date: 1999-08-16
doi: 10.1002/chin.199933137
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/chin.199933137
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1002/chin.199933137","reference_dois":["10.1055/s-1999-3490"],"reference_count":1}
title:
ChemInform Abstract: Improvements to the Synthesis of Psilocybin and a Facile Method for Preparing the O-Acetyl Prodrug of Psilocin.

abstract:
AbstractChemInform is a weekly Abstracting Service, delivering concise information at a glance that was extracted from about 100 leading journals. To access a ChemInform Abstract of an article which was published elsewhere, please select a “Full Text” option. The original article is trackable via the “References” option.


authors: Yamada Fumio, Tamura Mayumi, Somei Masanori
journal: ChemInform
publication_date: 1999-06-07
doi: 10.1002/chin.199923257
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/chin.199923257
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1002/chin.199923257","reference_dois":["10.3987/com-98-s18"],"reference_count":1}
title:
ChemInform Abstract: Chemistry of Indoles. Part 88. A Five-Step Synthesis of Psilocin from Indole-3-carbaldehyde.


authors: Nichols David E.
journal: Synthesis
publication_date: 1999-05-31
doi: 10.1055/s-1999-3490
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1055/s-1999-3490
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1055/s-1999-3490","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":0}
title:
Improvements to the Synthesis of Psilocybin and a Facile Method for Preparing the O-Acetyl Prodrug of Psilocin


title: A New Synthesis of Psilocin
authors: Ogasawara Kunio, Sakagami Hideki
journal: HETEROCYCLES
publication_date: 1998-12-31
doi: 10.3987/com-99-8492
source_url: https://doi.org/10.3987/com-99-8492
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json:
{"doi":"10.3987/com-99-8492","reference_dois":["10.1007/bf02159243","10.1002/hlca.19590420518","10.1039/p29740000946","10.1039/qr9621600133","10.1002/hlca.19590420638","10.3987/com-98-s18","10.1002/(sici)1099-1344(199807)41:7<585::aid-jlcr115>3.0.co;2-u","10.1055/s-1994-22903","10.1021/cr00104a001","10.1016/s0040-4039(01)83457-2","10.1021/ja953080t"],"reference_count":14}


authors: Ametamey S., Vollenweider F. X., Patt J., Bourquin D., Hasler F., Beer H.-F., Schubiger P. A.
journal: Journal of Labelled Compounds and Radiopharmaceuticals
publication_date: 1998-06-30
doi: 10.1002/(sici)1099-1344(199807)41:7<585::aid-jlcr115>3.0.co;2-u
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1099-1344(199807)41:7<585::aid-jlcr115>3.0.co;2-u
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: Receptor Pharmacology
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
11C-radiolabeling of hallucinogenic psilocin, a potential radioligand for studying the role of serotonin receptors in psychotic symptom formation

raw_json:
{"doi":"10.1002/(sici)1099-1344(199807)41:7<585::aid-jlcr115>3.0.co;2-u","reference_dois":["10.1002/hlca.19590420518","10.1016/s0893-133x(96)00246-1","10.1007/bf01244654","10.1038/npp.1993.32","10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820220066007","10.1016/0006-3223(86)90332-x","10.1016/0006-2952(62)90050-3","10.1016/0006-2952(61)90124-1","10.1016/0041-008x(62)90102-3","10.1016/s0031-6865(97)00014-9","10.1523/jneurosci.09-10-03482.1989","10.1002/ardp.19883210812","10.1016/s0969-8051(96)00181-3"],"reference_count":18}


authors: Lindenblatt H, Krämer E, Holzmann-Erens P, Gouzoulis-Mayfrank E, Kovar KA.
publication_date: 1998-04-30
doi: 10.1016/s0378-4347(98)00067-x
pubmed_id: 9657222
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-4347(98)00067-x
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Pharmacology,Healthy Volunteers
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
raw_json: {"europe_pmc_id":"9657222","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}
title:
Quantitation of psilocin in human plasma by high-performance liquid chromatography and electrochemical detection: comparison of liquid-liquid extraction with automated on-line solid-phase extraction.

abstract:
Two modifications of the HPLC-ED method with respect to extraction procedure used have been developed for psilocin, the active metabolite of psilocybin, in human plasma using either liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) or automated on-line solid-phase extraction (on-line SPE). Each type of the sample preparation required a different HPLC system followed by electrochemical detection at 650 to 675 mV. The limit of quantitation of both modifications was 10 ng/ml psilocin. There was no significant difference observable between the LLE and the on-line SPE in terms of method standard deviation (LLE1.82%, on-line SPE1.13%) and the analytical results. However, the advantages of on-line SPE in addition to different selectivity were less manual effort, smaller plasma volumes of 400 microl (LLE2 ml) and a recovery of psilocin in human plasma of nearly 100% (LLE88%). In contrast to a previous procedure both methods were rapid, simple and reliable and yielded high plasma recoveries. They were used successfully in the quantitation of psilocin in plasma samples obtained from healthy volunteers after p.o. administration of 0.2 mg psilocybin per kg body mass. Plasma concentration curves and pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated.

keywords:
Humans, Hallucinogens, Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid, Administration, Oral, Double-Blind Method, Reproducibility of Results, Electrochemistry, Psilocybin


authors: Hasler F, Bourquin D, Brenneisen R, Bär T, Vollenweider FX.
publication_date: 1997-05-31
doi: 10.1016/s0031-6865(97)00014-9
pubmed_id: 9204776
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0031-6865(97)00014-9
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Pharmacology,Healthy Volunteers
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
raw_json: {"europe_pmc_id":"9204776","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}
title:
Determination of psilocin and 4-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid in plasma by HPLC-ECD and pharmacokinetic profiles of oral and intravenous psilocybin in man.

abstract:
In order to investigate the pharmacokinetic properties of psilocybin (PY), the main psychoactive compound of Psilocybe mushrooms, high performance liquid chromatographic procedures with column-switching coupled with electrochemical detection (HPLC-ECD) for reliable quantitative determination of the PY metabolites psilocin (PI) and 4-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid (4HIAA) in human plasma were established. Sample work-up includes protection of the highly unstable phenolic analytes with ascorbic acid, freeze-drying and in-vitro microdialysis. The data of two controlled clinical studies with healthy volunteers are presented. The subjects (N = 6 for both studies) received single oral PY doses of 0.224 +/- 0.02 mg/kg b.wt. (10-20 mg) and intravenous doses of 1 mg PY, respectively. Peak plasma levels of PI after oral administration of PY were measured after 105 +/- 37 min showing an average concentration of 8.2 +/- 2.8 ng PI/ml plasma. 4HIAA peak concentrations of 150 +/- 61 ng/ml plasma were found 113 +/- 41 min after ingestion of PY. After intravenous administration, a mean PI maximum plasma concentration of 12.9 +/- 5.6 ng/ml plasma was found 1.9 +/- 1.0 min after injection. The maximum plasma levels appearing within a very short period indicate a rapid dephosphorylation of PY also when administered systemically. 4HIAA was not detected after 1 mg of intravenous PY. Estimates for the absolute bioavailability of PI after oral administration of PY were 52.7 +/- 20% (N = 3).

keywords:
Humans, Hydroxyindoleacetic Acid, Hallucinogens, Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid, Administration, Oral, Injections, Intravenous, Electrochemistry, Adult, Female, Male, Psilocybin


authors: Marcano V, Morales Méndez A, Castellano F, Salazar FJ, Martinez L.
publication_date: 1994-06-30
doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(94)90013-2
pubmed_id: 7967656
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(94)90013-2
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
raw_json: {"europe_pmc_id":"7967656","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}
title:
Occurrence of psilocybin and psilocin in Psilocybe pseudobullacea (Petch) Pegler from the Venezuelan Andes.

abstract:
Using thin-layer chromatographic and spectroscopic (UV) methods two Psilocybe species from the Venezuelan Andes were analysed for the hallucinogens psilocybin and psilocin. These species are: P. montana (Pers. ex Fr.) Kumm and P. pseudobullacea (Petch) Pegler. Both hallucinogens were found in P. pseudobullacea, while P. montana was found to be exempt of these compounds.

keywords:
Agaricales, Chromatography, Thin Layer, Spectrophotometry, Ultraviolet, Species Specificity, Venezuela, Psilocybin


title: A novel extraction procedure for psilocybin and psilocin determination in mushroom samples.
authors: Kysilka R, Wurst M.
publication_date: 1990-05-31
doi: 10.1055/s-2006-960970
pubmed_id: 17221430
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2006-960970
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:07
raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"17221430","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: The occurrence of psilocybin and psilocin in Finnish fungi.
authors: Ohenoja E, Jokiranta J, Mäkinen T, Kaikkonen A, Airaksinen MM.
publication_date: 1987-06-30
doi: 10.1021/np50052a030
pubmed_id: 3430170
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1021/np50052a030
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:07
raw_json: {"europe_pmc_id":"3430170","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}
keywords:
Fungi, Hallucinogens, Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid, Spectrophotometry, Ultraviolet, Finland, Psilocybin


title: Synthesis of psilocin labelled with 14C and 3H
authors: Poon Grace, Chui Yun‐Cheung, Law Francis C. P.
journal: Journal of Labelled Compounds and Radiopharmaceuticals
publication_date: 1986-01-31
doi: 10.1002/jlcr.2580230207
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/jlcr.2580230207
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
abstract:
Abstract14C- and 3H-Labelled psilocin (4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyl-tryptamine), the principal, active agent of hallucinogenic mushrooms, was synthesized from 2-methyl-3-nitrophenol via 4-benzyloxyindole. 14C-Labelled potassium cyanide was reacted with 4-benzyloxygramine (obtained from 4-benzyloxyindole) to give 14C-4-benzyloxy-3-indole acetic acid, an intermediate for 14C-psilocin synthesis. 3H-Labelled lithium aluminium hydride was used to react with 4-benzyloxy-3-indole-N,N-dimethyl-glyoxylamide (obtained from 4-benzyloxyindole) to give 3H-4-benzyloxy-psilocin which was debenzylated to form 3H-psilocin.

raw_json:
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authors: Lee RE
journal: Journal of forensic sciences
publication_date: 1985-06-30
pubmed_id: 4040953
source_url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4040953/
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: PubMed
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:20:41
raw_json: {"pubmed_id":"4040953"}
title:
A technique for the rapid isolation and identification of psilocin from psilocin/psilocybin-containing mushrooms.

abstract:
A method has been developed for the rapid isolation and identification of psilocin from psilocin/psilocybin-containing mushrooms. Based on the difference in the solubility properties in butyl chloride of psilocin and other constituents present in psilocin/psilocybin-containing mushrooms, psilocin was easily separated in pure form.


authors: Casale JF
journal: Journal of forensic sciences
publication_date: 1984-12-31
pubmed_id: 4038992
source_url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4038992/
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: PubMed
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:20:41
raw_json: {"pubmed_id":"4038992"}
title:
An aqueous-organic extraction method for the isolation and identification of psilocin from hallucinogenic mushrooms.

abstract:
A simple aqueous extraction method for the isolation and identification of psilocin from Psilocybe cubensis mushrooms is reported. This method employs a dephosphorylation of the phosphate ester to psilocin, which facilitates a greater product yield and simplifies identification. Psilocin extracted by this method is sufficiently concentrated and free of cocontaminants to allow identification by infrared spectroscopy and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry.


title: Detection of psilocybin and psilocin in norwegian species of pluteus and conocybe.
authors: Christiansen AL, Rasmussen KE, Høiland K.
publication_date: 1984-07-31
doi: 10.1055/s-2007-969726
pubmed_id: 17340325
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-969726
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
abstract:
A screening of Norwegian mushrooms for the presence of hallucinogenic indole alkaloids was carried out using HPLC with ultraviolet, fluorescence and electrochemical detection. The analysis revealed psilocybin and psilocin in two mushroom species: PLUTEUS SALICINUS and CONOCYBE CYANOPUS. The content of psilocybin and psilocin in dried material of PLUTEUS SALICINUS was determined to be 0.35% and 0.011%, respectively, and dried samples of CONOCYBE CYANOPUS were found to contain 0.33-0.55% psilocybin and 0.004-0.007% psilocin.

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"17340325","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Repke David B., Ferguson Wilfred J.
journal: Journal of Heterocyclic Chemistry
publication_date: 1982-06-30
doi: 10.1002/jhet.5570190428
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/jhet.5570190428
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
Psilocin analogs. III. Synthesis of 5-methoxy- and 5-hydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indoles

abstract:
AbstractA number of tetrahydro-β-carbolines were prepared with oxygen substituents at C-5. This class of compounds represents a hybrid between two naturally occurring groups of hallucinogenic molecules, the 4-hydroxytryptamines and the 6- and 7-oxygenated β-carbolines.

raw_json:
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authors: Bigwood J, Beug MW.
publication_date: 1982-04-30
doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(82)90014-9
pubmed_id: 7201054
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(82)90014-9
keywords: Basidiomycota, Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid, Psilocybin
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
raw_json: {"europe_pmc_id":"7201054","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}
title:
Variation of psilocybin and psilocin levels with repeated flushes (harvests) of mature sporocarps of Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer.

abstract:
Analysis of Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer grown in controlled culture showed that the level of psilocin was generally zero in the first (or sometimes even the second) fruiting of the mushroom from a given culture and that the level reached a maximum by the fourth flush. The level of psilocybin, which was nearly always at least twice the level of psilocin, showed no upward or downward trend as fruiting progressed, but was variable over a factor of four. Samples obtained from outside sources had psilocybin levels varying by over a factor of ten from one collection to the next.


authors: Beug MW, Bigwood J.
publication_date: 1982-04-30
doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(82)90013-7
pubmed_id: 7201053
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(82)90013-7
keywords: Basidiomycota, Hallucinogens, Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid, Oregon, Washington, Psilocybin
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
raw_json: {"europe_pmc_id":"7201053","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}
title:
Psilocybin and psilocin levels in twenty species from seven genera of wild mushrooms in the Pacific Northwest, U.S.A.

abstract:
The analysis of twenty species from seven genera of Pacific Northwest mushrooms revealed psilocybin (and in some cases psilocin as well) in seven species from three genera. The species found to contain psilocybin (and psilocin) varied from one collection to another by more than a factor of seven in amount present. Total psilocybin and psilocin levels in species known to be in use for recreational and entheogenic purposes varied from 0.1% by dry weight up to a high of nearly 2% by dry weight.


authors: REPKE D. B., FERGUSON W. J., BATES D. K.
journal: Chemischer Informationsdienst
publication_date: 1981-08-03
doi: 10.1002/chin.198131198
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/chin.198131198
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1002/chin.198131198","reference_dois":["10.1002/jhet.5570180131"],"reference_count":1}
title:
ChemInform Abstract: PSILOCIN ANALOGS. PART2. SYNTHESIS OF3-(2-(DIALKYLAMINO)ETHYL)-, 3-(2-(N-METHYL-N-ALKYLAMINO)ETHYL)-, AND3-(2-(CYCLOALKYLAMINO)ETHYL)INDOL-4-OLS

abstract:
AbstractOxypertin (I) zeigt neuroleptische und adrenolytische Aktivität. Deshalb werden aus dem entsprechenden Indol mit Oxalylchlorid und Amiden die Keto-amide (II) hergestellt und zu β-Aminoethylverbindungen (III) reduziert.


authors: MIGLIACCIO G. P., SHIEH T.‐L. N., BYRN S. R., HATHAWAY A., NICHOLS D. E.
journal: Chemischer Informationsdienst
publication_date: 1981-07-13
doi: 10.1002/chin.198128356
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/chin.198128356
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1002/chin.198128356","reference_dois":["10.1021/jm00134a016"],"reference_count":1}
title:
ChemInform Abstract: COMPARISON OF SOLUTION CONFORMATIONAL PREFERENCES FOR THE HALLUCINOGENS BUFOTENIN AND PSILOCIN USING 360-MHZ PROTON NMR SPECTROSCOPY


title: Occurrence of Psilocybin/Psilocin in Pluteus Salicinus (Pluteaceae)
authors: Saupe Stephen G.
journal: Mycologia
publication_date: 1981-06-30
doi: 10.1080/00275514.1981.12021406
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1080/00275514.1981.12021406
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json:
{"doi":"10.1080/00275514.1981.12021406","reference_dois":["10.1007/bf02159243","10.1016/s0007-1536(56)80001-6"],"reference_count":12}


authors: Migliaccio GP, Shieh TL, Byrn SR, Hathaway BA, Nichols DE.
publication_date: 1981-01-31
doi: 10.1021/jm00134a016
pubmed_id: 6259355
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1021/jm00134a016
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Receptor Pharmacology
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:07
raw_json: {"europe_pmc_id":"6259355","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}
title:
Comparison of solution conformational preferences for the hallucinogens bufotenin and psilocin using 360-MHz proton NMR spectroscopy.

abstract:
The 360-MHz 1H NMR spectra of bufotenin and psilocin were obtained, both as the free bases in CDCl3 and as protonated salts in D2O. Coupling constants for the side-chain methylenes were derived using the LAOCN3 program. These time-averaged coupling constants indicate that the trans and gauche rotamers of both compounds have about equal energy in D2O. There is a slight excess of the trans rotamer of bufotenin in CDCl3. For psilocin, in contrast, the gauche form is highly favored in CDCl3. The magnitude of this stabilization was estimated at about 1 kcal/mol using rotamer populations and free energy of transfer from published partitioning studies. It is suggested that this could result from a very weak hydrogen bond. On the other hand, the difference in partitioning between bufotenin and psilocin, which seems to be a major determinant of biological activity, is largely due to a difference in the basicity of the two compounds. The pKa values for the amino group of psilocin and bufotenin were determined to be 8.47 and 9.67, respectively.

keywords:
Protons, Serotonin, Bufotenin, Hallucinogens, Solutions, Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy, Molecular Conformation, Psilocybin


authors: Repke David B., Ferguson Wilfred J., Bates Dallas K.
journal: Journal of Heterocyclic Chemistry
publication_date: 1980-12-31
doi: 10.1002/jhet.5570180131
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/jhet.5570180131
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
Psilocin analogs II. Synthesis of 3-[2-(dialkylamino)ethyl]-, 3-[2-(N-methyl-N-alkylamino)ethyl]-, and 3-[2-(cycloalkylamino)ethyl]indol-4-ols

abstract:
AbstractStructural alteration of theNb-substituents of psilocin (3-[2-dimethylamino)ethyl]indol-4-ol) (12a) has led to a number of compounds containing known pharmacophoric groups. Further, it is hoped that the subtle changes in the nature of these substituents may lead to a clearer understanding of the structure-activity relationships of the 4-hydroxytryptamine hallucinogens.

raw_json:
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authors: Vaupel DB, Nozaki M, Martin WR, Bright LD, Morton EC.
publication_date: 1979-05-31
doi: 10.1016/0024-3205(79)90451-x
pubmed_id: 481115
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/0024-3205(79)90451-x
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:07
raw_json: {"europe_pmc_id":"481115","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}
title:
The inhibition of food intake in the dog by LDS, mescaline, psilocin, d-amphetamine and phenylisopropylamine derivatives.

keywords:
Animals, Dogs, Aniline Compounds, Dextroamphetamine, Mescaline, Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, Appetite Depressants, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Female, Male, Psilocybin


title: Psilocin, bufotenine and serotonin: historical and biosynthetic observations.
authors: Chilton WS, Bigwood J, Jensen RE.
publication_date: 1978-12-31
doi: 10.1080/02791072.1979.10472093
pubmed_id: 392119
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.1979.10472093
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Receptor Pharmacology
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:07
raw_json: {"europe_pmc_id":"392119","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}
keywords:
Animals, Anura, Bufonidae, Mammals, Basidiomycota, Amanita, Serotonin, Bufotenin, Hydroxylation, Chemistry, Isomerism, History, Ancient, History, 17th Century, History, 19th Century, History, 20th Century, United States, Brazil, Israel, China, Rome, Austria, Psilocybin


authors: Castellano C.
publication_date: 1978-09-30
doi: 10.1007/bf00427746
pubmed_id: 103113
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00427746
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Animal Study
study_type: Animal Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:07
raw_json: {"europe_pmc_id":"103113","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}
title:
Effects of mescaline and psilocin on acquisition, consolidation, and performance of light-dark discrimination in two inbred strains of mice.

keywords:
Animals, Mice, Inbred C57BL, Mice, Inbred DBA, Mice, Mescaline, Discrimination Learning, Light, Darkness, Male, Psilocybin, Discrimination, Psychological


authors: REPKE D. B., FERGUSON W. J., BATES D. K.
journal: Chemischer Informationsdienst
publication_date: 1977-07-11
doi: 10.1002/chin.197728193
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/chin.197728193
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1002/chin.197728193","reference_dois":["10.1002/jhet.5570140113"],"reference_count":1}
title:
ChemInform Abstract: PSILOCIN ANALOGS. 1. SYNTHESIS OF3-(2-(DIALKYLAMINO)ETHYL)- AND3-(2-(CYCLOALKYLAMINO)ETHYL)INDOL-4-OLS

abstract:
AbstractDas aus 1,3-Cyclohexandion bzw. Pyrrol zugängliche Dihydroindolon (I) wird über Pd-C zu (IIa) dehydriert und zu (IIb) acetyliert.


authors: Repke David B., Ferguson Wilfred J., Bates Dallas K.
journal: Journal of Heterocyclic Chemistry
publication_date: 1977-01-31
doi: 10.1002/jhet.5570140113
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/jhet.5570140113
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
title:
Psilocin analogs. 1. Synthesis of 3-[2-(dialkylamino)ethyl] -and 3-[2-(cycloalkylamino)ethyl] indol-4-ols

abstract:
AbstractThe synthesis of four dialkyl and three eyeloalkyl analogs of psilocin (4, R - CH3), a hallucinogenic principle found in certain fungi, is described. The synthetic route involves four transformations starting with 6,7-dihydroindol-4(5H)one: (1).

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title: ChemInform Abstract: NEUER ZUGANG ZU PSILOCIN-DERIVATEN
authors: GERMAIN CLAUDE, BOURDAIS JACQUES
journal: Chemischer Informationsdienst
publication_date: 1974-12-09
doi: 10.1002/chin.197449273
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/chin.197449273
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1002/chin.197449273","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":1}
abstract:
AbstractDie Psilocine (IV) werden in ca. 20%iger Gesamtausbeute aus den Alkoxybenzolen (I) über die Amide (II) und die Alkoxygramine (III) nach bekannten Methoden darge- stellt.


authors: CAMPAIGNE E., ROGERS R. B.
journal: Chemischer Informationsdienst
publication_date: 1974-07-15
doi: 10.1002/chin.197428268
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/chin.197428268
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1002/chin.197428268","reference_dois":["10.1002/jhet.5570100614"],"reference_count":1}
title:
ChemInform Abstract: BENZO(B)THIOPHENE DERIVATIVES PART21, ON THE PROOF OF STRUCTURE OF THE SULFUR ISOSTERE OF PSILOCIN

abstract:
Abstract′3-Brom-4-methoxy-benzo(b)thiophen (Ia) liefert die Lithio-Verbindung (Ib), die zu (II) formyliert wird.


title: Benzo[b]thiophene derivatives. XXI. On the proof of structure of the sulfur isostere of psilocin
authors: Campaigne E., Rogers R. B.
journal: Journal of Heterocyclic Chemistry
publication_date: 1973-11-30
doi: 10.1002/jhet.5570100614
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/jhet.5570100614
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
abstract:
AbstractDifferences in the characteristics of several common compounds reported in two independent syntheses of the sulfur analog of psilocin required re-examination of our products. Additional evidence supporting the structures previously reported by us is presented. This includes proof of 3-substitution in 4-methoxy-3-β-dimethylaminoethylbenzo[b]thiophene by deuterium exchange of the 2-proton, demonstration that the intermediate 4-methoxy-N, N-dimethyl-3-benzo[b]thienylglyoxamide is different from the 2-isomer, and confirmation of the structure of 4-methoxy-3-methylhenzo[b]thiophene, an intermediate in one of the reported syntheses, by three different synthetic methods.

raw_json:
{"doi":"10.1002/jhet.5570100614","reference_dois":["10.1002/jhet.5570100304","10.1039/p19720003011","10.1039/j39710003447","10.1021/ja01162a528","10.1039/j39680000764","10.1039/p19730000623","10.1039/p19720001404","10.1016/0040-4020(69)80021-9","10.1002/jhet.5570080514"],"reference_count":15}


authors: CAMPAIGNE E., ROGERS R. B.
journal: Chemischer Informationsdienst
publication_date: 1973-11-05
doi: 10.1002/chin.197345337
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/chin.197345337
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:21:33
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1002/chin.197345337","reference_dois":["10.1002/jhet.5570100304"],"reference_count":1}
title:
ChemInform Abstract: BENZO(B)THIOPHENE DERIVATIVES PART19, THE SULFUR ISOSTERES OF PSILOCIN AND RELATED ISOMERS

abstract:
AbstractZur Untersuchung auf pharmakologische Wirkung, speziell hallucinogene Effekte, werden die S-Isosteren von Psilocin und ähnliche Benzo(b)thiophene hergestellt.


title: ChemInform Abstract: SYNTH. DES SCHWEFELANALOGEN VON PSILOCIN UND EINIGEN VERWANDTEN VERBINDUNGEN
authors: CHAPMAN N. B., SCROWSTON R. M., SUTTON T. M.
journal: Chemischer Informationsdienst
publication_date: 1973-02-19
doi: 10.1002/chin.197308246
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/chin.197308246
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:09:46
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1002/chin.197308246","reference_dois":["10.1039/p19720003011"],"reference_count":1}
abstract:
AbstractDie Synthese des Psilocinanalogen (Vb) geht von der Carbonsäure (Ia) aus, die beim Erhitzen mit Kupfer/Chinolin das Benzothiophen (Ib) gibt.


title: ChemInform Abstract: INDOLE 22. MITT. INDOLSYNTH., ANWENDUNG AUF PSILOCIN
authors: JULIA MARC, PASCAL YVES ROBERT
journal: Chemischer Informationsdienst. Organische Chemie
publication_date: 1970-12-21
doi: 10.1002/chin.197051318
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/chin.197051318
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:09:46
raw_json: {"doi":"10.1002/chin.197051318","reference_dois":[],"reference_count":1}
abstract:
AbstractDas aus dem Ketoester (I) durch Reduktion nach Huang-Minlon, Verseifen zur Carbonsäure und Cyclisieren erhaltene Keton (II) (55% Ausbeute), das auch aus dem aus Pyrrol und γ-Chlor-butyronitril durch Grignard-Reaktion entstehenden Nitrilgemisch analog erhältlich ist [20%; daneben das Isomere (IV) (86%)], läßt sich zum Indolol-(4) (III) dehydrieren (69%).


authors: Gessner PK, Godse DD, Krull AH, McMullan JM.
publication_date: 1968-02-29
doi: 10.1016/0024-3205(68)90200-2
pubmed_id: 5641719
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/0024-3205(68)90200-2
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: Epigenetics
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:07
raw_json: {"europe_pmc_id":"5641719","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}
title:
Structure-activity relationships among 5-methoxy-n:n-dimethyltryptamine, 4-hydroxy-n:n-dimethyltryptamine (psilocin) and other substituted tryptamines.

keywords:
Animals, Rats, Tryptamines, Avoidance Learning, Methylation, Models, Psychological, Female, Conditioning, Psychological


title: Psilocin: effects on behaviour and brain serotonin in mice.
authors: Collins RL, Ordy JM, Samorajski T.
publication_date: 1966-01-31
doi: 10.1038/209785a0
pubmed_id: 5922147
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1038/209785a0
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: Receptor Pharmacology,Animal Study
study_type: Animal Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:07
raw_json: {"europe_pmc_id":"5922147","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}
keywords:
Animals, Mice, Tryptamines, Serotonin, Reserpine, Hallucinogens, Behavior, Animal, Avoidance Learning, Brain Chemistry, Female


authors: McKay J. B., Parkhurst R. M., Silverstein R. M., Skinner W. A.
journal: Canadian Journal of Chemistry
publication_date: 1963-09-30
doi: 10.1139/v63-378
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1139/v63-378
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Crossref
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:52:05
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:09:46
title:
ANALOGUES OF PSILOCIN AND LYSERGIC ACID DIETHYLAMIDE I. CHLORO, NITRO, AND AMINO DERIVATIVES OF3-SUBSTITUTED INDOLES

abstract:
A number of indole derivatives structurally related to either psilocin or lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) were synthesized. The following structural analogues of psilocin are reported: 4-chloro-3-dimethylaminoethylindole, 4-nitro-3-dimethylaminoethylindole, 4-nitro-3-aminoethylindole, 4-amino-3-dimethylaminoethylindole, and 4-amino-3-aminoethylindole. Compounds structurally related to LSD that were synthesized are: 3-[β-carboxyethylaminoethyl]-4-nitroindole and 4-nitro-3-[N-methyl-N-(N′,N′-diethylcarboxamidoethy-aminoethyl]indole. Several 3,5- and 3,6-disubstituted indoles are also reported.

raw_json:
{"doi":"10.1139/v63-378","reference_dois":["10.1002/recl.19610800310","10.1021/ja01652a113","10.1021/ja01171a001","10.1002/cber.19550880310","10.1021/ja01104a029","10.1021/ja01147a519"],"reference_count":7}


title: Psychedelics and Consciousness: Distinctions, Demarcations, and Opportunities.
journal: The international journal of neuropsychopharmacology
publication_date: 2021-08-19
doi: 10.1093/ijnp/pyab026
pubmed_id: 33987652
source_url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33987652/
keywords: Altered states of consciousness, LSD, consciousness, psilocybin, psychedelics
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Consciousness,Review Article
study_type: Review Article
source_name: PubMed
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:20:39
raw_json: {"pubmed_id":"33987652"}
authors:
Yaden DB, Johnson MW, Griffiths RR, Doss MK, Garcia-Romeu A, Nayak S, Gukasyan N, Mathur BN, Barrett FS

abstract:
Psychedelic substances produce unusual and compelling changes in conscious experience that have prompted some to propose that psychedelics may provide unique insights explaining the nature of consciousness. At present, psychedelics, like other current scientific tools and methods, seem unlikely to provide information relevant to the so-called "hard problem of consciousness," which involves explaining how first-person experience can emerge. However, psychedelics bear on multiple "easy problems of consciousness," which involve relations between subjectivity, brain function, and behavior. In this review, we discuss common meanings of the term "consciousness" when used with regard to psychedelics and consider some models of the effects of psychedelics on the brain that have also been associated with explanatory claims about consciousness. We conclude by calling for epistemic humility regarding the potential for psychedelic research to aid in explaining the hard problem of consciousness while pointing to ways in which psychedelics may advance the study of many specific aspects of consciousness.


authors: Corneille JS, Luke D.
publication_date: 2021-08-18
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.720579
pubmed_id: 34489825
source_url: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.720579
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Consciousness,Wellbeing,Personality Change,Spirituality,Mystical Experience,Observational Study
study_type: Observational Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
title:
Spontaneous Spiritual Awakenings: Phenomenology, Altered States, Individual Differences, and Well-Being.

abstract:
Spontaneous Spiritual Awakenings (SSAs) are subjective experiences characterised by a sudden sense of direct contact, union, or complete nondual merging (experience of oneness) with a perceived ultimate reality, the universe, "God," or the divine. These profound transformative experiences have scarcely been researched, despite extensive anecdotal evidence suggesting their potential to catalyse drastic, long-term, and often positive shifts in perception, world-view, and well-being. The aims of this study were to investigate the phenomenological variances of these experiences, including the potential differences between SSAs and Spontaneous Kundalini Awakenings (SKAs), a subset of awakening experiences that the authors postulate may produce a higher likelihood of both physical and negative effects; to explore how these experiences compare to other altered states of consciousness (ASCs), including those mediated by certain psychedelic substances; and understand their impact on well-being. Personality trait absorption and temporal lobe lability (TLL) were assessed as predictors of Spontaneous Spiritual and Kundalini Awakenings (SSA/SKAs). A mixed within and between-participants self-report survey design was adopted. A total of 152 participants reporting their most powerful SSA/SKAs completed questionnaires measuring nondual, kundalini, and mystical experience, as well as depth of ASC, and trait absorption and TLL. Spontaneous Kundalini Awakenings were found to be significantly more physical, but not significantly more negative than SSAs, and overall, both sets of experiences were perceived to be overwhelmingly more positive than negative, even in cases where the experience was initially challenging. The phenomenological distribution of SSA/SKAs was similar to other measured ASCs although greater in magnitude, and appeared most similar in distribution and in magnitude to drug-induced ASCs, particularly classic psychedelics DMT and psilocybin. Temporal lobe lability and trait absorption were found to predict the SSA/SKA experience. The limitations and implications of these findings are discussed.

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"34489825","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: The cranial windows of perception.
authors: DiBerto JF, Roth BL.
publication_date: 2021-07-31
doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2021.07.017
pubmed_id: 34411534
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2021.07.017
keywords: Pyramidal Cells, Neurons, Hallucinogens, Perception, Psilocybin
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:04
abstract:
Psilocybin has emerged as a potentially rapidly acting antidepressant with enduring actions. In this issue of Neuron, Shao et al. (2021) show that psilocybin quickly induces dendritic spine formation in cortical layer V pyramidal neurons. These results provide a potential cellular substrate for psilocybin's therapeutic actions.

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"34411534","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Psilocybin induces rapid and persistent growth of dendritic spines in frontal cortex in vivo.
authors: Shao LX, Liao C, Gregg I, Davoudian PA, Savalia NK, Delagarza K, Kwan AC.
publication_date: 2021-07-04
doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2021.06.008
pubmed_id: 34228959
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2021.06.008
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Neuroplasticity,Animal Study
study_type: Animal Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:02
abstract:
Psilocybin is a serotonergic psychedelic with untapped therapeutic potential. There are hints that the use of psychedelics can produce neural adaptations, although the extent and timescale of the impact in a mammalian brain are unknown. In this study, we used chronic two-photon microscopy to image longitudinally the apical dendritic spines of layer 5 pyramidal neurons in the mouse medial frontal cortex. We found that a single dose of psilocybin led to ∼10% increases in spine size and density, driven by an elevated spine formation rate. The structural remodeling occurred quickly within 24 h and was persistent 1 month later. Psilocybin also ameliorated stress-related behavioral deficit and elevated excitatory neurotransmission. Overall, the results demonstrate that psilocybin-evoked synaptic rewiring in the cortex is fast and enduring, potentially providing a structural trace for long-term integration of experiences and lasting beneficial actions.

keywords:
Pyramidal Cells, Cerebral Cortex, Frontal Lobe, Dendrites, Dendritic Spines, Animals, Mice, Synaptic Transmission, Neuronal Plasticity, Female, Male, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"34228959","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Więckiewicz G, Stokłosa I, Piegza M, Gorczyca P, Pudlo R.
publication_date: 2021-08-11
doi: 10.3390/ph14080793
pubmed_id: 34451890
source_url: https://doi.org/10.3390/ph14080793
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,Meta-Analysis,Systematic Review,Review Article
study_type: Meta-Analysis
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:02
title:
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, Psilocybin and Dimethyltryptamine in Depression Treatment: A Systematic Review.

abstract:
Despite many different kinds of substances available for depression treatment, depression itself still appears to be a clinical challenge. Recently, formerly illicit substances came to scientists' attention, including lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin and dimethyltryptamine (DMT). Some studies suggest that these substances might be effective in depression treatment. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of LSD, psilocybin and DMT in depression treatment in the light of current medical literature. The authors followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines for this systematic review. The authors searched the PubMed and Cochrane Library databases to identify relevant publications. Finally, 10 papers were included. Most of the selected studies showed significant correlation between psilocybin and DMT use and reduction in depression symptom intensity. By analyzing qualified studies, it can be concluded that psilocybin and DMT could be useful in depression treatment, but further observations are still required.

raw_json:
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authors: Eleftheriou ME, Thomas E
journal: Frontiers in psychiatry
publication_date: 2020-12-31
doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.707057
pubmed_id: 34456763
source_url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34456763/
keywords: 5-MeO-DMT, MBSR, ayahuasca, decentering, meditation, mindfulness, psilocybin, psychedelic therapy
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,Mechanism of Action,Wellbeing,Healthy Volunteers
study_type: Other
source_name: PubMed
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:20:39
raw_json: {"pubmed_id":"34456763"}
title:
Examining the Potential Synergistic Effects Between Mindfulness Training and Psychedelic-Assisted Therapy.

abstract:
Mindfulness-based interventions and psychedelic-assisted therapy have been experimentally utilised in recent years as alternative treatments for various psychopathologies with moderate to great success. Both have also demonstrated significant post-acute and long-term decreases in clinical symptoms and enhancements in well-being in healthy participants. These two therapeutic interventions share various postulated salutogenic mechanisms, such as the ability to alter present-moment awareness and anti-depressive action, corresponding neuromodulatory effects. Recent preliminary evidence has also demonstrated that psychedelic administration can enhance mindfulness capacities which has already been demonstrated robustly as a result of mindfulness-based interventions. These shared mechanisms between mindfulness-based interventions and psychedelic therapy have led to scientists theorising, and recently demonstrating, synergistic effects when both are used in combination, in the form of potentiated therapeutic benefit. These synergistic results hold great promise but require replication in bigger sample groups and better controlled methodologies, to fully delineate the effect of set and setting, before they can be extended onto clinical populations.


publication_date: 2021-08-05
doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.688439
pubmed_id: 34421675
source_url: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.688439
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Personality Change,Healthy Volunteers
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
title:
Effects of Ayahuasca on Personality: Results of Two Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trials in Healthy Volunteers.

authors:
Mendes Rocha J, Rossi GN, Osório FL, Bouso Saiz JC, Silveira GO, Yonamine M, Crevelin EJ, Queiroz ME, Cecílio Hallak JE, Dos Santos RG.

abstract:
Rationale: Previous studies with the serotonergic hallucinogens LSD and psilocybin showed that these drugs induced changes in personality traits, such as increases in Openness. However, results are inconsistent, and the effects of ayahuasca on personality were never investigated in a controlled trial. Objectives: To assess the effects of ayahuasca on personality in two randomized, placebo-controlled trials in healthy volunteers. Methods: Data from two parallel-group, randomized, placebo-controlled trials in healthy volunteers were included. In the first trial, 15 volunteers ingested ayahuasca or placebo, while in the second trial 15 volunteers received placebo+ayahuasca or cannabidiol (CBD)+ayahuasca. Personality was assessed with the NEO-Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) at baseline and 21 days post-treatment. Results: There were significant differences between groups in baseline Openness scores, but not on day 21. A significant increase in Openness scores was observed in the placebo + ayahuasca group in study 2. No other within-group differences were observed for any other domain. Conclusions: Ayahuasca produced inconsistent effects on personality since it induced significant increase in Openness 21 days post-drug intake only in one of the trials. The absence of significant differences in the other ayahuasca groups could be due to small sample sizes and baseline differences among groups. The effects of ayahuasca and other serotonergic hallucinogens on personality should be further investigated in clinical samples.

raw_json:
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authors: Nkadimeng SM, Steinmann CML, Eloff JN.
publication_date: 2021-08-04
doi: 10.2147/jir.s317182
pubmed_id: 34385833
source_url: https://doi.org/10.2147/jir.s317182
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Mitochondrial Function,In Vitro Study,Inflammation
study_type: In Vitro Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:04
title:
Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Four Psilocybin-Containing Magic Mushroom Water Extracts in vitro on 15-Lipoxygenase Activity and on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Cyclooxygenase-2 and Inflammatory Cytokines in Human U937 Macrophage Cells.

abstract:
PurposeDuring a pathological inflammation, macrophages are activated to produce accumulation of inflammatory mediators such as induced-cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), 15-lipoxygenase (15-LOX) and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Pathological inflammation is a significant problem in many chronic diseases. As a result, more research into natural remedies with anti-inflammatory potential is crucial. Since ancient times, psilocybin-containing mushrooms, also known as magic mushrooms, were used for mind healing and also to advance the quality of life. However, not much is known about their anti-inflammatory potential. This study aimed at investigating the anti-inflammatory effects of four psilocybin-containing mushrooms (Panaeolus cyanescens, Psilocybe natalensis, Psilocybe cubensis and Psilocybe cubensis leucistic A+ strain) from genus Panaeolus and Psilocybe for the first time in vitro on 15-LOX activity and also on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation in human U937 macrophage cells.MethodsMushrooms were grown and extracted with boiling hot water. Effects of the four water extracts on 15-LOX activity were determined. Confluent human U937 cells were differentiated with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate and treated with the hot-water extracts (25 and 50 µg/mL) 2 hours before being stimulated with 1 µg/mL LPS over 24 hours. Quercetin was used as a positive control. Control cells were differentiated but not LPS-induced nor treated. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 concentrations were measured. Levels of COX-2 and mitochondrial activity were also determined.ResultsThe four water extracts had poor 15-LOX inhibition activity with IC50 > 250 µg/mL. Extracts were safe at the concentration studied and inhibited the LPS-induced production of pro-inflammatory mediators, TNF-α and IL-1β significantly and lowered IL-6 and COX-2 concentrations in treated human U937 macrophage cells. Water extracts also increased percentage viability of treated cells and levels of anti-inflammatory IL-10 non-significantly.ConclusionThe study suggested that the hot-water extracts of the four psilocybin-containing magic mushrooms have potential anti-inflammatory effects executed by down-regulating pro-inflammatory mediators.

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title: Pharmacologic Similarities and Differences Among Hallucinogens.
authors: Waters K.
publication_date: 2021-07-31
doi: 10.1002/jcph.1917
pubmed_id: 34396556
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1002/jcph.1917
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Addiction,End-of-Life Distress,Mechanism of Action,Receptor Pharmacology,Review Article
study_type: Review Article
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
abstract:
Hallucinogens constitute a unique class of substances that cause changes in the user's thoughts, perceptions, and mood through various mechanisms of action. Although the serotonergic hallucinogens such as lysergic acid diethylamide, psilocybin, and N,N-dimethyltryptamine have been termed the classical hallucinogens, many hallucinogens elicit their actions through other mechanisms such as N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonism, opioid receptor agonism, or inhibition of the reuptake of monoamines including serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. The aim of this article is to compare the pharmacologic similarities and differences among substances within the hallucinogen class and their impact on physical and psychiatric effects. Potential toxicities, including life-threatening and long-term effects, will be reviewed.

keywords:
Humans, Substance-Related Disorders, Biogenic Monoamines, Tryptamines, Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, Receptors, Opioid, Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate, Hallucinogens, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"34396556","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: van Dongen RM, Alderliefste GJ, Onderwater GLJ, Ferrari MD, Terwindt GM
journal: European journal of neurology
publication_date: 2021-07-31
doi: 10.1111/ene.14914
pubmed_id: 33979006
source_url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33979006/
keywords: ecstasy, hallucinogen persisting perception disorder, illicit drugs, migraine, visual snow
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Headache / Migraine,Safety
study_type: Other
source_name: PubMed
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
raw_json: {"pubmed_id":"33979006"}
title:
Migraine prevalence in visual snow with prior illicit drug use (hallucinogen persisting perception disorder) versus without.

abstract:
This study was undertaken to investigate migraine prevalence in persons with hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) presenting as visual snow syndrome (VSS).
Persons with visual snow as a persisting symptom after illicit drug use (HPPD) were recruited via a Dutch consulting clinic for recreational drug use. A structured interview on (visual) perceptual symptomatology, details of drugs use, and medical and headache history was taken. As a control group, persons with visual snow who had never used illicit drugs prior to onset were included. The primary outcome was lifetime prevalence of migraine. Symptom severity was evaluated by the Visual Snow Handicap Inventory (VHI), a 25-item questionnaire.
None of the 24 HPPD participants had migraine, whereas 20 of 37 (54.1%) controls had migraine (p < 0.001). VHI scores did not differ significantly between the two groups; in both groups, the median score was 38 of 100. In most HPPD cases (17/24, 70.9%), visual snow had started after intake of ecstasy; other psychedelic drugs reported included cannabis, psilocybin mushrooms, amphetamine, 4-fluoroamphetamine, 3-methylmethcathinone, 4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxypenethylamine, and nitrous oxide.
Whereas none of the HPPD participants had migraine, more than half of the visual snow controls without prior use of illicit drugs had migraine. This suggests that at least partly different pathophysiological factors play a role in these disorders. Users of ecstasy and other hallucinogens should be warned of the risk of visual snow. Further studies are needed to enhance understanding of the underlying neurobiology of HPPD and VSS to enable better management of these conditions.


title: [Efficacy of psychedelics in psychiatry, a systematic review of the literature].
authors: Berkovitch L, Roméo B, Karila L, Gaillard R, Benyamina A.
publication_date: 2021-04-19
doi: 10.1016/j.encep.2020.12.002
pubmed_id: 33888297
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.encep.2020.12.002
substance_tags: psilocybin
study_type: Randomized Controlled Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
abstract:
ObjectivesPsychedelics are powerful psychoactive substances. Natural psychedelics have been used for millennia by human civilizations, in particular in Latin America, while synthetic psychedelics were discovered in the 50s, giving rise to a lot of research before they were prohibited. More recently, their therapeutic properties have been studied especially to help patients with psychiatric conditions, psychological distress or substance use disorders. This article is a systematic review of the literature which aims to provide an overview of all studies that assessed the efficacy of psychedelics, i.e. psilocybin, ayahuasca and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), on psychiatric diseases and addictions.MethodsWe conducted this literature review following the PRISMA recommendations. MEDLINE, PsycInfo, Web of Science and Scopus were searched from January 1990 to May 2020 with the following keywords "(ayahuasca OR psilocybin OR lysergic acid diethylamide) AND (depression OR anxiety OR major depressive disorder OR bipolar disorder OR anxiety disorder OR substance use disorder OR dependence)".ResultsTwenty-five articles met the inclusion criteria. Five articles studied psychedelic efficacy in the treatment of life-threatening diseases related to anxiety and depression: four were randomized controlled crossover trials (three with psilocybin for a total of 92 patients, and one with LSD, n=12), and one was a long-term follow-up study. Eleven articles explored the efficacy of psychedelics in the treatment of major depressive episodes: two were open-labeled trials (one with ayahuasca, n=17, one with psilocybin, n=20), one was a randomized controlled trial using ayahuasca against placebo (n=29), and the others were long-term follow-up studies or assessed more precise dimensions of the depressive disorder, such as suicidality, emotion processing or personality traits. Eight articles studied the efficacy of psychedelics in the treatment of addictions: two were open-labeled studies using psilocybin (one in alcohol use disorder, n=10, and one in tobacco use disorder, n=15), and the others were long-term follow-up studies or retrospective observational descriptive studies on alcohol, tobacco, opioids, cannabis, and psychostimulants. One study explored the efficacy of psilocybin in obsessional-compulsive disorder (n=9). Overall, these studies found a quick and important response after psychedelic administration that lasted for several months, even after a single dose. However most of these studies were descriptive or open-label studies conducted on small size samples. No severe adverse events occurred.ConclusionsPsychedelics are promising treatments for anxiety, depression and addiction, their efficacy is quick and sustainable, and they are well tolerated. These effects need to be confirmed in larger studies and compared to standard care.

keywords:
Humans, Hallucinogens, Retrospective Studies, Follow-Up Studies, Psychiatry, Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic, Major Depressive Disorder

topic_tags:
Depression,Anxiety,Addiction,End-of-Life Distress,Personality Change,Emotional Processing,Randomized Controlled Trial,Systematic Review,Review Article,Observational Study,Adverse Events

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33888297","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: The Potential Role of Serotonergic Hallucinogens in Depression Treatment.
authors: Psiuk D, Nowak E, Cholewa K, Łopuszańska U, Samardakiewicz M.
publication_date: 2021-07-28
doi: 10.3390/life11080765
pubmed_id: 34440508
source_url: https://doi.org/10.3390/life11080765
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,Clinical Trial,Systematic Review,Review Article,Safety,Adverse Events
study_type: Systematic Review
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
abstract:
Due to an increasing number of depression diagnoses and limited effective treatments, researchers continue to explore novel therapeutic strategies for this disorder. Recently, interest has revolved around the use of serotonergic psychedelics to reduce the symptoms of depression. In this systematic review, we summarize the currently available knowledge on the safety and efficacy of psychedelic substances for the treatment of depression. A literature search of the PubMed/MEDLINE database identified 14 clinical trials from the last 10 years that examined the use of psilocybin, MDMA, DMT, or LSD for the treatment of depression symptoms. Some psychedelics, especially psilocybin, demonstrated an ability to reduce depressive symptoms as measured by several psychological scales, which was often sustained for months after the last psychedelic session. Moreover, one study revealed that psilocybin has comparable efficacy to escitalopram in the treatment of depression. None of the studies reported any serious adverse events associated with psychedelic administration. The reviewed studies suggest that psychedelics have great potential in depression therapy and, after addressing and overcoming the current study limitations, may be used as a novel method of treating depression in the future.

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"34440508","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


publication_date: 2021-07-26
doi: 10.3390/cells10081902
pubmed_id: 34440670
source_url: https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10081902
substance_tags: psilocybin
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
title:
Serotonin Heteroreceptor Complexes and Their Integration of Signals in Neurons and Astroglia-Relevance for Mental Diseases.

authors:
Borroto-Escuela DO, Ambrogini P, Narvaez M, Di Liberto V, Beggiato S, Ferraro L, Fores-Pons R, Alvarez-Contino JE, Lopez-Salas A, Mudò G, Díaz-Cabiale Z, Fuxe K.

abstract:
The heteroreceptor complexes present a novel biological principle for signal integration. These complexes and their allosteric receptor-receptor interactions are bidirectional and novel targets for treatment of CNS diseases including mental diseases. The existence of D2R-5-HT2AR heterocomplexes can help explain the anti-schizophrenic effects of atypical antipsychotic drugs not only based on blockade of 5-HT2AR and of D2R in higher doses but also based on blocking the allosteric enhancement of D2R protomer signaling by 5-HT2AR protomer activation. This research opens a new understanding of the integration of DA and 5-HT signals released from DA and 5-HT nerve terminal networks. The biological principle of forming 5-HT and other heteroreceptor complexes in the brain also help understand the mechanism of action for especially the 5-HT hallucinogens, including putative positive effects of e.g., psilocybin and the indicated prosocial and anti-stress actions of MDMA (ecstasy). The GalR1-GalR2 heterodimer and the putative GalR1-GalR2-5-HT1 heteroreceptor complexes are targets for Galanin N-terminal fragment Gal (1-15), a major modulator of emotional networks in models of mental disease. GPCR-receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) heteroreceptor complexes can operate through transactivation of FGFR1 via allosteric mechanisms and indirect interactions over GPCR intracellular pathways involving protein kinase Src which produces tyrosine phosphorylation of the RTK. The exciting discovery was made that several antidepressant drugs such as TCAs and SSRIs as well as the fast-acting antidepressant drug ketamine can directly bind to the TrkB receptor and provide a novel mechanism for their antidepressant actions. Understanding the role of astrocytes and their allosteric receptor-receptor interactions in modulating forebrain glutamate synapses with impact on dorsal raphe-forebrain serotonin neurons is also of high relevance for research on major depressive disorder.

keywords:
Brain, Astrocytes, Animals, Humans, Receptors, Dopamine D2, Receptor, Galanin, Type 1, Receptor, Galanin, Type 2, Receptors, Serotonin, 5-HT1, Receptor, Serotonin, 5-HT2A, Antipsychotic Agents, Antidepressive Agents, Mental Disorders, Signal Transduction, Receptor Cross-Talk, Receptor, Fibroblast Growth Factor, Type 1, Dopaminergic Neurons, Serotonergic Neurons

topic_tags:
Depression,End-of-Life Distress,Mechanism of Action,Receptor Pharmacology,Emotional Processing,Drug Interactions

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"34440670","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


publication_date: 2021-06-30
doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109413
pubmed_id: 34289355
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109413
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Mechanism of Action
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
title:
A dynamic and multilocus metabolic regulation strategy using quorum-sensing-controlled bacterial small RNA.

authors:
Bao SH, Jiang H, Zhu LY, Yao G, Han PG, Wan XK, Wang K, Song TY, Liu CJ, Wang S, Zhang ZY, Zhang DY, Meng E.

abstract:
Metabolic regulation strategies have been developed to redirect metabolic fluxes to production pathways. However, it is difficult to screen out target genes that, when repressed, improve yield without affecting cell growth. Here, we report a strategy using a quorum-sensing system to control small RNA transcription, allowing cell-density-dependent repression of target genes. This strategy is shown with convenient operation, dynamic repression, and availability for simultaneous regulation of multiple genes. The parameters Ai, Am, and RA (3-oxohexanoyl-homoserine lactone [AHL] concentrations at which half of the maximum repression and the maximum repression were reached and value of the maximum repression when AHL was added manually, respectively) are defined and introduced to characterize repression curves, and the variant LuxRI58N is identified as the most suitable tuning factor for shake flask culture. Moreover, it is shown that dynamic overexpression of the Hfq chaperone is the key to combinatorial repression without disruptions on cell growth. To show a broad applicability, the production titers of pinene, pentalenene, and psilocybin are improved by 365.3%, 79.5%, and 302.9%, respectively, by applying combinatorial dynamic repression.

keywords:
Escherichia coli, Cyclopentanes, RNA, Bacterial, Gene Expression Regulation, Bacterial, Glycolysis, Quorum Sensing, Biosynthetic Pathways, Genetic Loci, Psilocybin, Bicyclic Monoterpenes

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"34289355","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Does Psychedelic Therapy Have a Transdiagnostic Action and Prophylactic Potential?
authors: Kočárová R, Horáček J, Carhart-Harris R
journal: Frontiers in psychiatry
publication_date: 2020-12-31
doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.661233
pubmed_id: 34349678
source_url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34349678/
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Neuroplasticity,Biomarkers,Wellbeing,Resilience,Psychological Flexibility
study_type: Other
source_name: PubMed
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:20:39
raw_json: {"pubmed_id":"34349678"}
abstract:
Addressing global mental health is a major 21st-century challenge. Current treatments have recognized limitations; in this context, new ones that are prophylactic and effective across diagnostic boundaries would represent a major advance. The view that there exists a core of transdiagnostic overlap between psychiatric disorders has re-emerged in recent years, and evidence that psychedelic therapy holds promise for a range of psychiatric disorders supports the position that it may be transdiagnostically effective. Here, we propose that psychedelic therapy's core, transdiagnostically relevant action lies in its ability to increase neuronal and mental plasticity, thus enhancing the potential for change, which we consider to be a key to its therapeutic benefits. Moreover, we suggest that enhanced plasticity psychedelics, combined with a psychotherapeutic approach, can aid healthy adaptability and resilience, which are protective factors for long-term well-being. We present candidate neurological and psychological markers of this plasticity and link them with a predictive processing model of the action of psychedelics. We propose that a model of psychedelic-induced plasticity combined with an adequate therapeutic context has prophylactic and transdiagnostic potential, implying that it could have a broad, positive impact on public health.

keywords:
hallucinogens, plasticity, prevention, psilocybin, psychedelics, psychological flexibility, transdiagnostic, well-being


authors: Cox DJ, Garcia-Romeu A, Johnson MW.
publication_date: 2021-06-04
doi: 10.1080/00952990.2021.1910830
pubmed_id: 34096403
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1080/00952990.2021.1910830
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Addiction,Emotional Processing,Observational Study
study_type: Observational Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
title:
Predicting changes in substance use following psychedelic experiences: natural language processing of psychedelic session narratives.

abstract:
Background: Experiences with psychedelic drugs, such as psilocybin or lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), are sometimes followed by changes in patterns of tobacco, opioid, and alcohol consumption. But, the specific characteristics of psychedelic experiences that lead to changes in drug consumption are unknown.Objective: Determine whether quantitative descriptions of psychedelic experiences derived using Natural Language Processing (NLP) would allow us to predict who would quit or reduce using drugs following a psychedelic experience.Methods: We recruited 1141 individuals (247 female, 894 male) from online social media platforms who reported quitting or reducing using alcohol, cannabis, opioids, or stimulants following a psychedelic experience to provide a verbal narrative of the psychedelic experience they attributed as leading to their reduction in drug use. We used NLP to derive topic models that quantitatively described each participant's psychedelic experience narrative. We then used the vector descriptions of each participant's psychedelic experience narrative as input into three different supervised machine learning algorithms to predict long-term drug reduction outcomes.Results: We found that the topic models derived through NLP led to quantitative descriptions of participant narratives that differed across participants when grouped by the drug class quit as well as the long-term quit/reduction outcomes. Additionally, all three machine learning algorithms led to similar prediction accuracy (~65%, CI = ±0.21%) for long-term quit/reduction outcomes.Conclusions: Using machine learning to analyze written reports of psychedelic experiences may allow for accurate prediction of quit outcomes and what drug is quit or reduced within psychedelic therapy.

keywords:
Humans, Substance-Related Disorders, Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, Hallucinogens, Alcohol Drinking, Emotions, Natural Language Processing, Adult, Female, Male, Surveys and Questionnaires, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"34096403","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Psychedelic Psychiatry and the Consult-Liaison Psychiatrist: A Primer.
authors: Barnett BS, Greer GR.
publication_date: 2021-01-20
doi: 10.1016/j.jaclp.2020.12.011
pubmed_id: 34210406
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaclp.2020.12.011
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,PTSD,Addiction,Review Article,Safety,Adverse Events
study_type: Review Article
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
abstract:
BackgroundPsychedelic compounds such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin, and 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) share a long and complex history with psychiatry. A half century ago, psychedelics were widely employed by psychiatrists in investigational and clinical settings, with studies demonstrating promising findings for their use in the treatment of mental illness and substance use disorders. However, concerns were also raised about their abuse potential and other adverse effects. Owing to these worries and psychedelics' association with the counterculture movement, psychedelics were largely outlawed in the United States in 1970, bringing research on their therapeutic potential to a halt. However, in recent years, a resurgence of psychedelic research has revealed compelling, though early, evidence for the use of psychedelic-assisted therapy in treating alcohol use disorder, nicotine use disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression.ObjectiveHere we provide an overview of psychiatry's complicated relationship with psychedelics, while reviewing contemporary findings on psychedelic-assisted therapy, safety of psychedelic-assisted therapy, and risks of nonmedical use. We also make the case that psychiatry should consider preparing now for the possibility of Food and Drug Administration approval of psychedelic-assisted therapies in the near future. We conclude by discussing how growing societal interest in psychedelics could impact the work of consult-liaison psychiatrists, while also exploring how consult-liaison psychiatrists might contribute to future delivery of psychedelic treatments.MethodsWe reviewed literature on psychedelic-assisted therapies and adverse events resulting from nonmedical psychedelic use.ResultsWe found a small, but rapidly growing literature indicating that psychedelic-assisted therapies may have treatment potential for mental illness and addiction. Our search also revealed a variety of rare adverse events stemming from nonmedical psychedelic use.ConclusionsDespite past concerns about psychedelics, current data indicate psychedelic-assisted therapy may potentially reduce suffering owing to mental illness and addiction if administered thoughtfully and cautiously by trained professionals in medical settings.

keywords:
N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, Hallucinogens, Psychiatry, United States, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"34210406","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Registered clinical studies investigating psychedelic drugs for psychiatric disorders.
authors: Siegel AN, Meshkat S, Benitah K, Lipsitz O, Gill H, Lui LMW, Teopiz KM, McIntyre RS, Rosenblat JD.
publication_date: 2021-05-17
doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.05.019
pubmed_id: 34048997
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.05.019
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,Anxiety,PTSD,Addiction,Consciousness
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
abstract:
Psychedelics are a hallucinogenic class of psychoactive drugs with the primary effect of activating non-ordinary states of consciousness. Due to the positive preliminary findings of these drugs in the treatment of psychiatric disorders, the number of registered clinical studies has risen significantly. In this paper, clinical studies registered on clinicaltrials.gov that evaluate the treatment of any psychiatric disorder with psychedelics (excluding ketamine) are summarized and analyzed. 70 registered studies were identified from a clinicaltrials.gov search on December 3, 2020. The majority of studies aim to investigate methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) (45.7%) and psilocybin (41.4%). Studies evaluating ayahuasca, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), ibogaine hydrochloride, salvia divinorum, 5-MeO-DMT and DMT fumarate were less common at 1.4%, 4.2%, 2.8%, 1.4%, 1.4% and 1.4% of total registered studies, respectively. Most of the studies on MDMA, psilocybin, ayahuasca and salvia divinorum investigated their therapeutic effect on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depressive disorder (MDD). LSD was investigated for MDD, anxiety, and severe somatic disorders and ibogaine hydrochloride was investigated for substance and alcohol use disorders. 5-MeO-DMT and DMT fumarate were both investigated for MDD. Only 21/70 registered studies had published results with the majority not yet completed. In view of the large number of ongoing studies investigating psychedelics, it is imperative that these studies are considered by researchers and stakeholders in deciding the most relevant research priorities for future proposed studies.

keywords:
Humans, Alcoholism, Hallucinogens, Pharmaceutical Preparations, Psilocybin, Major Depressive Disorder

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"34048997","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: The Potential Role of Psychedelic Drugs in Mental Health Care of the Future.
authors: Gründer G, Jungaberle H.
publication_date: 2021-05-11
doi: 10.1055/a-1486-7386
pubmed_id: 33979868
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1486-7386
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Pharmacology,Safety
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
abstract:
Serotonergic psychedelics such as psilocybin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), or dimethyltryptamine (DMT), as well as psychoactive drugs that trigger phenomenologically- related experiences like 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and ketamine, belong to the most promising treatment approaches in contemporary psychiatry. Psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy is not only a new treatment paradigm in psychopharmacology, but it also requires a redefinition of psychotherapeutic processes and the contextualization of psychopharmacological interventions within a new treatment infrastructure. Crucial for future practice and research in the field are (1) informed patient referral and co-treatment practices, (2) screening (e. g., choosing the right patients for these therapies), (3) the dosing preparation sessions, (4) the assisted dosing sessions as well as after-care procedures such as (5) psychological integration and (6) supporting the development of structured patient communities. Definition of future treatment delivery infrastructures and requirements for therapist training are further challenges for research and practice. Finally, the implementation of psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy in routine mental health care must be embedded into public communication about the potential and risks of these innovative therapeutic approaches. This paper provides a synopsis of challenges for practitioners, researchers, and regulators to be addressed in the approval processes of psychedelics.

keywords:
Humans, Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, Hallucinogens, Pharmaceutical Preparations, Mental Health, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33979868","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Cannabis-induced oceanic boundlessness.
authors: Earleywine M, Ueno LF, Mian MN, Altman BR.
publication_date: 2021-03-27
doi: 10.1177/0269881121997099
pubmed_id: 33779383
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881121997099
substance_tags: psilocybin
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:04
abstract:
BackgroundDespite tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)'s reputation for creating dramatic effects at high doses, empirical work rarely addresses cannabis's impact on subjective responses common to the tryptamine psychedelics. We focused on these effects because they have preceded and covaried with the therapeutic impact of psilocybin in previous work.AimsThe current study examined if self-reported responses to cannabis products might parallel those found in clinical trials of psilocybin administration. We also investigated if measures of demographics and cannabis use might correlate with these responses.MethodsParticipants reported the subjective effect of their highest THC experience using 27 items that assess oceanic boundlessness, a correlate of mystical experiences. They also answered infrequency items and questions on demographics and cannabis consumption.ResultsIn an effort to address concerns about replication, we divided respondents who passed infrequency items into two random samples. Self-reported "breakthrough" experiences were significantly greater than zero but significantly lower than those reported in randomized clinical trials of psilocybin (17-19% vs. 59%). Total scores covaried with perceived dosages of THC, but only in one sample. Heavier users of cannabis reported lower scores.ConclusionsSelf-report data suggest that high doses of cannabis can create subjective effects comparable to those identified in trials of psilocybin that precede relief from cancer-related distress, treatment-resistant depression, alcohol problems, and cigarette dependence. Given the disparate mechanisms of action, comparing THC-induced to psilocybin-induced effects might improve our understanding of the mechanisms underlying subjective experiences. This work might also support the development of a cannabis-assisted psychotherapy comparable to psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy.

keywords:
Humans, Hallucinogens, Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Middle Aged, Female, Male, Young Adult, Self Report, Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists, Dronabinol

topic_tags:
Depression,Mechanism of Action,Receptor Pharmacology,Mystical Experience,Clinical Trial,Adolescents,Cancer Patients,Treatment-Resistant Depression

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33779383","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Mertens LJ, Preller KH.
publication_date: 2021-01-19
doi: 10.1055/a-1341-1907
pubmed_id: 33472250
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1341-1907
keywords: Humans, Substance-Related Disorders, Hallucinogens, Mood Disorders, Psychiatry, Psilocybin
substance_tags: psilocybin
study_type: Randomized Controlled Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
title:
Classical Psychedelics as Therapeutics in Psychiatry - Current Clinical Evidence and Potential Therapeutic Mechanisms in Substance Use and Mood Disorders.

abstract:
Classical psychedelics, primarily psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), have been used and extensively studied in Western medicine as part of substance-assisted psychotherapy in the 1950s and 1960s. Modern clinical research is currently gaining momentum and provides new evidence for the safety and efficacy of classical psychedelics (primarily psilocybin, but also LSD and ayahuasca) in the treatment of different psychiatric conditions, including substance use and mood disorders.In this review article, we outline common pathological mechanisms of substance use disorders (SUD) and unipolar depression. Next, the current literature on the effects of psychedelics is summarized in order to generate hypotheses regarding their potential therapeutic mechanisms of action in treating these psychiatric conditions. Finally, we review and discuss clinical trials published since 2011 investigating the effects of psychedelics in SUD and depression.While results from those modern clinical trials are promising, most of them do not meet the methodological requirements to allow firm conclusions on the clinical efficacy of psychedelics. Larger, blinded, randomized controlled trials (RCT) with clearly defined patient groups and well-defined primary endpoints are needed. Additionally, the therapeutic mechanisms of classical psychedelics are currently unknown. This review presents hypotheses derived from preclinical and human studies that need to be tested in future trials to better understand the clinical potential of psychedelic substances in modern psychiatry.

topic_tags:
Depression,Addiction,Mechanism of Action,Clinical Trial,Randomized Controlled Trial,Review Article,Animal Study,Safety

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33472250","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Mans K, Kettner H, Erritzoe D, Haijen ECHM, Kaelen M, Carhart-Harris RL.
publication_date: 2021-06-28
doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.647909
pubmed_id: 34267683
source_url: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.647909
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Wellbeing,Spirituality,Observational Study
study_type: Observational Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
title:
Sustained, Multifaceted Improvements in Mental Well-Being Following Psychedelic Experiences in a Prospective Opportunity Sample.

abstract:
In the last 15 years, psychedelic substances, such as LSD and psilocybin, have regained legitimacy in clinical research. In the general population as well as across various psychiatric populations, mental well-being has been found to significantly improve after a psychedelic experience. Mental well-being has large socioeconomic relevance, but it is a complex, multifaceted construct. In this naturalistic observational study, a comprehensive approach was taken to assessing well-being before and after a taking a psychedelic compound to induce a "psychedelic experience." Fourteen measures of well-being related constructs were included in order to examine the breadth and specificity of change in well-being. This change was then analysed to examine clusters of measures changing together. Survey data was collected from volunteers that intended to take a psychedelic. Four key time points were analysed: 1 week before and 2 weeks, 4 weeks, and 2 years after the experience (N = 654, N = 315, N = 212, and N = 64, respectively). Change on the included measures was found to cluster into three factors which we labelled: 1) "Being well", 2) "Staying well," and 3) "Spirituality." Repeated Measures Multivariate Analysis of Variance revealed all but the spirituality factor to be improved in the weeks following the psychedelic experience. Additional Mixed model analyses revealed selective increases in Being Well and Staying Well (but not Spirituality) that remained statistically significant up to 2 years post-experience, albeit with high attrition rates. Post-hoc examination suggested that attrition was not due to differential acute experiences or mental-health changes in those who dropped out vs. those who did not. These findings suggest that psychedelics can have a broad, robust and sustained positive impact on mental well-being in those that have a prior intention to use a psychedelic compound. Public policy implications are discussed.

raw_json:
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authors: Révész D, Ona G, Rossi GN, Rocha JM, Dos Santos RG, Hallak JEC, Alcázar-Córcoles MÁ, Bouso JC.
publication_date: 2021-06-15
doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.687546
pubmed_id: 34220590
source_url: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.687546
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Personality Change,Spirituality,Observational Study
study_type: Observational Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
title:
Cross-Sectional Associations Between Lifetime Use of Psychedelic Drugs and Psychometric Measures During the COVID-19 Confinement: A Transcultural Study.

abstract:
Background: One of the main public health strategies adopted at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic consisted of implementing strict lockdowns to stop the transmission of the virus. Despite being an effective measure, the confinement and the associated social isolation create a stressful, potentially lengthy situations that has been proven to have several psychological consequences. Given the potential benefits that certain psychedelic drugs have shown for the treatment of psychological disorders, this study aimed to assess the impact of lifetime psychedelic drug use on mental health in relation to the first strict lockdown adopted by various countries (April-July 2020). Methods: Subjects completed an online survey that inquired about sociodemographic factors, activities, and lifestyle factors during confinement, as well as health and mental health related factors. Subjects were asked about their lifetime use of psychedelic drugs (MDMA, ayahuasca, psilocybin-containing mushrooms, LSD, peyote, San Pedro, Bufo alvarius or 5-MeO-DMT, and others), being classified as regular users (more than once per 6 months), occasional users, or non-users. The survey included psychometric tests used to assess psychological distress, peritraumatic stress, social support, psychopathological symptoms, and personality. Linear regressions were performed with psychedelic drug users as the independent variable and psychometric factors as the outcomes, while correcting for age, gender, language, religion, spirituality, and use of non-psychedelic drugs. Results: The study included 2,974 English, Portuguese, and Spanish speakers (497 regular users of psychedelic drugs, 606 occasional users, and 1,968 non-users). On average, respondents were 36 years old and 70% were female. Psychedelic drug users, especially regular ones, reported less psychological distress, less peritraumatic stress, and more social support. Regarding personality measures, psychedelic drug users scored higher on the novelty-seeking and self-transcendence scales, and lower on cooperativeness. Conclusion: Our findings showed that regular users of psychedelic drugs had less psychological stress and some personality differences when compared to occasional users and non-users. This suggests that either the use of psychedelics might be a protective factor itself or people with certain previous traits are more prone to frequently using psychedelic drugs. Future prospective longitudinal research should investigate the underlying processes observed in this study to develop consistent hypotheses.

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"34220590","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Psychedelic science in post-COVID-19 psychiatry.
authors: Kelly JR, Crockett MT, Alexander L, Haran M, Baker A, Burke L, Brennan C, O'Keane V.
publication_date: 2020-08-18
doi: 10.1017/ipm.2020.94
pubmed_id: 32811575
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1017/ipm.2020.94
keywords: Humans, Hallucinogens, Psychiatry, Psilocybin, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2
substance_tags: psilocybin
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:04
abstract:
The medium- to long-term consequences of COVID-19 are not yet known, though an increase in mental health problems are predicted. Multidisciplinary strategies across socio-economic and psychological levels may be needed to mitigate the mental health burden of COVID-19. Preliminary evidence from the rapidly progressing field of psychedelic science shows that psilocybin therapy offers a promising transdiagnostic treatment strategy for a range of disorders with restricted and maladaptive habitual patterns of cognition and behaviour, notably depression, addiction and obsessive compulsive disorder. The COMPASS Pathways (COMPASS) phase 2b double-blind trial of psilocybin therapy in antidepressant-free, treatment-resistant depression (TRD) is underway to determine the safety, efficacy and optimal dose of psilocybin. Results from the Imperial College London Psilodep-RCT comparing the efficacy and mechanisms of action of psilocybin therapy to the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) escitalopram will soon be published. However, the efficacy and safety of psilocybin therapy in conjunction with SSRIs in TRD is not yet known. An additional COMPASS study, with a centre in Dublin, will begin to address this question, with potential implications for the future delivery of psilocybin therapy. While at a relatively early stage of clinical development, and notwithstanding the immense challenges of COVID-19, psilocybin therapy has the potential to play an important therapeutic role for various psychiatric disorders in post-COVID-19 clinical psychiatry.

topic_tags:
Depression,Addiction,Mechanism of Action,Receptor Pharmacology,Clinical Trial,Randomized Controlled Trial,Treatment-Resistant Depression,Safety

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"32811575","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: The Therapeutic Potential of Psilocybin.
authors: Lowe H, Toyang N, Steele B, Valentine H, Grant J, Ali A, Ngwa W, Gordon L.
publication_date: 2021-05-14
doi: 10.3390/molecules26102948
pubmed_id: 34063505
source_url: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26102948
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Spirituality,Systematic Review,Review Article
study_type: Systematic Review
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:02
abstract:
The psychedelic effects of some plants and fungi have been known and deliberately exploited by humans for thousands of years. Fungi, particularly mushrooms, are the principal source of naturally occurring psychedelics. The mushroom extract, psilocybin has historically been used as a psychedelic agent for religious and spiritual ceremonies, as well as a therapeutic option for neuropsychiatric conditions. Psychedelic use was largely associated with the "hippie" counterculture movement, which, in turn, resulted in a growing, and still lingering, negative stigmatization for psychedelics. As a result, in 1970, the U.S. government rescheduled psychedelics as Schedule 1 drugs, ultimately ending scientific research on psychedelics. This prohibition on psychedelic drug research significantly delayed advances in medical knowledge on the therapeutic uses of agents such as psilocybin. A2004 pilot study from the University of California, Los Angeles, exploring the potential of psilocybin treatment in patients with advanced-stage cancer managed to reignite interest and significantly renewed efforts in psilocybin research, heralding a new age in exploration for psychedelic therapy. Since then, significant advances have been made in characterizing the chemical properties of psilocybin as well as its therapeutic uses. This review will explore the potential of psilocybin in the treatment of neuropsychiatry-related conditions, examining recent advances as well as current research. This is not a systematic review.

keywords:
Humans, Neoplasms, Hallucinogens, Mental Disorders, Molecular Structure, Biomedical Research, Clinical Studies as Topic, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"34063505","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Psilocybin and MDMA for the treatment of trauma-related psychopathology.
authors: Bird CIV, Modlin NL, Rucker JJH.
publication_date: 2021-04-30
doi: 10.1080/09540261.2021.1919062
pubmed_id: 34121583
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1080/09540261.2021.1919062
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,PTSD,Review Article
study_type: Review Article
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:03
abstract:
This review examines the role of trauma in psychiatric morbidity and analogous psychoneurobiological changes. Trauma is a necessary criterion for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), however, trauma history is highly correlated with a variety of psychiatric conditions. Some evidence suggests that Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is the most common psychiatric condition that arises following trauma. Approximately 50% of PTSD cases present with co-morbid MDD. Overlapping symptomatology and neurobiology between these conditions underlie the debate over whether these phenomena result from problematic nosology or whether comorbid MDD + PTSD is a distinct phenotype of trauma-related psychopathology. Regardless, similar treatment approaches have been employed historically, with varying success. The drug-assisted psychotherapy treatment model, which combines pharmacological and psychotherapeutic approaches, is currently being trialled as a novel treatment approach in psychiatry. Both psilocybin- and 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-assisted psychotherapy have received Food and Drug Administration 'breakthrough therapy' designation for the treatment of resistant MDD and PTSD, respectively. This paper reviews the therapeutic rationale of both psilocybin and MDMA for treating both trauma-related MDD and PTSD.

keywords:
Humans, N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, Treatment Outcome, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Psilocybin, Major Depressive Disorder

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"34121583","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: A "Trip" to the Intensive Care Unit: An Intravenous Injection of Psilocybin.
authors: Giancola NB, Korson CJ, Caplan JP, McKnight CA.
publication_date: 2020-12-31
doi: 10.1016/j.jaclp.2020.12.012
pubmed_id: 34102133
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaclp.2020.12.012
keywords: Hallucinogens, Injections, Intravenous, Intensive Care Units, Psilocybin
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: General
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"34102133","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


publication_date: 2021-04-30
doi: 10.1097/jcp.0000000000001396
pubmed_id: 33843820
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1097/jcp.0000000000001396
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Anxiety,Wellbeing,Emotional Processing,Randomized Controlled Trial,Healthy Volunteers,Safety
study_type: Randomized Controlled Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
title:
Effects of Ayahuasca on the Recognition of Facial Expressions of Emotions in Naive Healthy Volunteers: A Pilot, Proof-of-Concept, Randomized Controlled Trial.

authors:
Rocha JM, Rossi GN, de Lima Osório F, Bouso JC, de Oliveira Silveira G, Yonamine M, Campos AC, Bertozi G, Cecílio Hallak JE, Dos Santos RG.

abstract:
BackgroundThe recognition of emotions in facial expressions (REFE) is a core aspect of social cognition. Previous studies with the serotonergic hallucinogens lysergic acid diethylamide and psilocybin showed that these drugs reduced the recognition of negative (fear) faces in healthy volunteers. This trial assessed the acute and prolonged effects of a single dose of ayahuasca on the REFE.MethodsTwenty-two healthy volunteers participated in a pilot, proof-of-concept, randomized trial. Study variables included a REFE task performed before and 4 hours after drug intake, subjective effects (self-reports/observer impressions), tolerability measures (cardiovascular measures, self-reports), and brain-derived neurotrophic factor plasma levels. The REFE task was applied again 1, 7, 14, and 21 days and 3 months after drug intake. Stability of ayahuasca alkaloids during the study was also assessed (room temperature, 18 months).FindingsCompared with placebo, ayahuasca did not modify the REFE. No significant effects were observed on cardiovascular measures and brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels. Volunteers reported visual effects, tranquility/relaxation, and well-being, with few reports of transient anxiety/confusion. Ayahuasca was well tolerated, producing mainly nausea, gastrointestinal discomfort, and vomiting. A significant time-dependent deterioration of alkaloids was observed, especially for dimethyltryptamine.ConclusionsAbsence of significant effects on the REFE task could be due to lack of effects of ayahuasca (at the doses used), alkaloid degradation, learning effects, and the high educational level of the sample. Further trials with different samples are needed to better understand the effects of ayahuasca and other serotonergic hallucinogens on the REFE. Future trials should improve methods to guarantee the stability of ayahuasca alkaloids.

keywords:
Humans, Banisteriopsis, Hallucinogens, Plant Preparations, Pilot Projects, Double-Blind Method, Time Factors, Adult, Middle Aged, Female, Male, Young Adult, Facial Recognition, Proof of Concept Study

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33843820","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Romeo B, Hermand M, Pétillion A, Karila L, Benyamina A
journal: Journal of psychiatric research
publication_date: 2021-04-30
doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.03.002
pubmed_id: 33730602
source_url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33730602/
keywords: Addictive disorders, Ayahuasca, Psilocybin, Psychedelics, Psychiatric disorders
substance_tags: psilocybin
study_type: Systematic Review
source_name: PubMed
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:20:39
raw_json: {"pubmed_id":"33730602"}
title:
Clinical and biological predictors of psychedelic response in the treatment of psychiatric and addictive disorders: A systematic review.

abstract:
The use of psychedelic treatments has shown very promising results in some psychiatric and addictive disorders, but not all patients achieved a response.
The aim of this review is to explore the clinical and biological factors which could predict the response to psychedelics in psychiatric and addictive disorders.
A systematic research was performed on MEDLINE, PsycInfo, Web of science, and Scopus databases from January 1990 to May 2020. All studies investigating the predictive factors of response to psychedelics regardless of psychiatric or addictive disorders, were included.
Twenty studies investigating addictive disorder, treatment-resistant depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder and depressive and anxiety symptoms in patients with life-threatening cancer were included in this review. We found that, in all indications, the main predictive factor of response to psychedelics is the intensity of the acute psychedelic experience. Indeed, we found this factor for alcohol and tobacco use disorders, treatment-resistant depression, and anxiety and depressive symptoms in patients with life-threatening cancer, but not for obsessive-compulsive disorder.
The intensity of the acute psychedelic experience was the main predicting factor of response. The action mechanism of this experience was not clear, but some hypotheses could be made, such as a modulation of serotoninergic system by 5-HT2A receptors agonism, a modulation of the default mode network (DMN) with an acute modular disintegration of the DMN followed by a re-integration of this network with a normal functioning, or an anti-inflammatory effect of this treatment.

topic_tags:
Depression,Anxiety,Addiction,OCD,End-of-Life Distress,Receptor Pharmacology,Default Mode Network,Systematic Review,Review Article,Treatment-Resistant Depression,Inflammation


authors: Davis AK, Griffiths RR.
publication_date: 2021-04-30
doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.4638
pubmed_id: 33566073
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.4638
keywords: Humans, Treatment Outcome, Psilocybin, Major Depressive Disorder
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
title:
Errors in a Response Rate and in Effect Sizes in Study of Psilocybin-Assisted Therapy for Major Depressive Disorder.

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33566073","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Psilocybin-Assisted Supportive Psychotherapy in the Treatment of Major Depression-Quo Vadis?
authors: Reynolds CF.
publication_date: 2021-04-30
doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.2901
pubmed_id: 33146675
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.2901
keywords: Humans, Depression, Psychotherapy, Psilocybin, Major Depressive Disorder
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33146675","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Effects of Psilocybin-Assisted Therapy on Major Depressive Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial.
authors: Davis AK, Barrett FS, May DG, Cosimano MP, Sepeda ND, Johnson MW, Finan PH, Griffiths RR.
publication_date: 2021-04-30
doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.3285
pubmed_id: 33146667
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.3285
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,Consciousness,Clinical Trial,Treatment-Resistant Depression
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:03
abstract:
ImportanceMajor depressive disorder (MDD) is a substantial public health burden, but current treatments have limited effectiveness and adherence. Recent evidence suggests that 1 or 2 administrations of psilocybin with psychological support produces antidepressant effects in patients with cancer and in those with treatment-resistant depression.ObjectiveTo investigate the effect of psilocybin therapy in patients with MDD.Design, setting, and participantsThis randomized, waiting list-controlled clinical trial was conducted at the Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research at Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center in Baltimore, Maryland. Adults aged 21 to 75 years with an MDD diagnosis, not currently using antidepressant medications, and without histories of psychotic disorder, serious suicide attempt, or hospitalization were eligible to participate. Enrollment occurred between August 2017 and April 2019, and the 4-week primary outcome assessments were completed in July 2019. A total of 27 participants were randomized to an immediate treatment condition group (n = 15) or delayed treatment condition group (waiting list control condition; n = 12). Data analysis was conducted from July 1, 2019, to July 31, 2020, and included participants who completed the intervention (evaluable population).InterventionsTwo psilocybin sessions (session 1: 20 mg/70 kg; session 2: 30 mg/70 kg) were given (administered in opaque gelatin capsules with approximately 100 mL of water) in the context of supportive psychotherapy (approximately 11 hours). Participants were randomized to begin treatment immediately or after an 8-week delay.Main outcomes and measuresThe primary outcome, depression severity was assessed with the GRID-Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (GRID-HAMD) scores at baseline (score of ≥17 required for enrollment) and weeks 5 and 8 after enrollment for the delayed treatment group, which corresponded to weeks 1 and 4 after the intervention for the immediate treatment group. Secondary outcomes included the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology-Self Rated (QIDS-SR).ResultsOf the randomized participants, 24 of 27 (89%) completed the intervention and the week 1 and week 4 postsession assessments. This population had a mean (SD) age of 39.8 (12.2) years, was composed of 16 women (67%), and had a mean (SD) baseline GRID-HAMD score of 22.8 (3.9). The mean (SD) GRID-HAMD scores at weeks 1 and 4 (8.0 [7.1] and 8.5 [5.7]) in the immediate treatment group were statistically significantly lower than the scores at the comparable time points of weeks 5 and 8 (23.8 [5.4] and 23.5 [6.0]) in the delayed treatment group. The effect sizes were large at week 5 (Cohen d = 2.5; 95% CI, 1.4-3.5; P

keywords:
Humans, Hallucinogens, Antidepressive Agents, Combined Modality Therapy, Follow-Up Studies, Psychotherapy, Time Factors, Adult, Middle Aged, Female, Male, Young Adult, Patient Acuity, Psilocybin, Outcome Assessment, Health Care, Major Depressive Disorder

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33146667","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Hesselgrave N, Troppoli TA, Wulff AB, Cole AB, Thompson SM.
publication_date: 2021-03-31
doi: 10.1073/pnas.2022489118
pubmed_id: 33850049
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2022489118
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,Neuroplasticity,Receptor Pharmacology,Consciousness,Animal Study
study_type: Animal Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:02
title:
Harnessing psilocybin: antidepressant-like behavioral and synaptic actions of psilocybin are independent of 5-HT2R activation in mice.

abstract:
Depression is a widespread and devastating mental illness and the search for rapid-acting antidepressants remains critical. There is now exciting evidence that the psychedelic compound psilocybin produces not only powerful alterations of consciousness, but also rapid and persistent antidepressant effects. How psilocybin exerts its therapeutic actions is not known, but it is widely presumed that these actions require altered consciousness, which is known to be dependent on serotonin 2A receptor (5-HT2AR) activation. This hypothesis has never been tested, however. We therefore asked whether psilocybin would exert antidepressant-like responses in mice and, if so, whether these responses required 5-HT2AR activation. Using chronically stressed male mice, we observed that a single injection of psilocybin reversed anhedonic responses assessed with the sucrose preference and female urine preference tests. The antianhedonic response to psilocybin was accompanied by a strengthening of excitatory synapses in the hippocampus-a characteristic of traditional and fast-acting antidepressants. Neither behavioral nor electrophysiological responses to psilocybin were prevented by pretreatment with the 5-HT2A/2C antagonist ketanserin, despite positive evidence of ketanserin's efficacy. We conclude that psilocybin's mechanism of antidepressant action can be studied in animal models and suggest that altered perception may not be required for its antidepressant effects. We further suggest that a 5-HT2AR-independent restoration of synaptic strength in cortico-mesolimbic reward circuits may contribute to its antidepressant action. The possibility of combining psychedelic compounds and a 5-HT2AR antagonist offers a potential means to increase their acceptance and clinical utility and should be studied in human depression.

keywords:
Hippocampus, Animals, Mice, Inbred C57BL, Mice, Ketanserin, Receptors, Serotonin, 5-HT2, Hallucinogens, Drug Evaluation, Preclinical, Depression, Stress, Psychological, Male, Serotonin 5-HT2 Receptor Agonists, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33850049","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of 5-Methylpsilocybin: A Tryptamine with Potential Psychedelic Activity.
authors: Fricke J, Sherwood AM, Halberstadt AL, Kargbo RB, Hoffmeister D.
publication_date: 2021-03-04
doi: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.1c00087
pubmed_id: 33667102
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jnatprod.1c00087
keywords: Animals, Mice, Tryptamines, Hallucinogens, Molecular Structure, Psilocybe, Psilocybin
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Animal Study
study_type: Animal Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
abstract:
A novel analogue of psilocybin was produced by hybrid chemoenzymatic synthesis in sufficient quantity to enable bioassay. Utilizing purified 4-hydroxytryptamine kinase from Psilocybe cubensis, chemically synthesized 5-methylpsilocin (2) was enzymatically phosphorylated to provide 5-methylpsilocybin (1). The zwitterionic product was isolated from the enzymatic step with high purity utilizing a solvent-antisolvent precipitation approach. Subsequently, 1 was tested for psychedelic-like activity using the mouse head-twitch response assay, which indicated activity that was more potent than the psychedelic dimethyltryptamine, but less potent than that of psilocybin.

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33667102","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Molecular and Functional Imaging Studies of Psychedelic Drug Action in Animals and Humans.
authors: Cumming P, Scheidegger M, Dornbierer D, Palner M, Quednow BB, Martin-Soelch C.
publication_date: 2021-04-21
doi: 10.3390/molecules26092451
pubmed_id: 33922330
source_url: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26092451
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
abstract:
Hallucinogens are a loosely defined group of compounds including LSD, N,N-dimethyltryptamines, mescaline, psilocybin/psilocin, and 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methamphetamine (DOM), which can evoke intense visual and emotional experiences. We are witnessing a renaissance of research interest in hallucinogens, driven by increasing awareness of their psychotherapeutic potential. As such, we now present a narrative review of the literature on hallucinogen binding in vitro and ex vivo, and the various molecular imaging studies with positron emission tomography (PET) or single photon emission computer tomography (SPECT). In general, molecular imaging can depict the uptake and binding distribution of labelled hallucinogenic compounds or their congeners in the brain, as was shown in an early PET study with N1-([11C]-methyl)-2-bromo-LSD ([11C]-MBL); displacement with the non-radioactive competitor ketanserin confirmed that the majority of [11C]-MBL specific binding was to serotonin 5-HT2A receptors. However, interactions at serotonin 5HT1A and other classes of receptors and pleotropic effects on second messenger pathways may contribute to the particular experiential phenomenologies of LSD and other hallucinogenic compounds. Other salient aspects of hallucinogen action include permeability to the blood-brain barrier, the rates of metabolism and elimination, and the formation of active metabolites. Despite the maturation of radiochemistry and molecular imaging in recent years, there has been only a handful of PET or SPECT studies of radiolabeled hallucinogens, most recently using the 5-HT2A/2C agonist N-(2[11CH3O]-methoxybenzyl)-2,5-dimethoxy- 4-bromophenethylamine ([11C]Cimbi-36). In addition to PET studies of target engagement at neuroreceptors and transporters, there is a small number of studies on the effects of hallucinogenic compounds on cerebral perfusion ([15O]-water) or metabolism ([18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose/FDG). There remains considerable scope for basic imaging research on the sites of interaction of hallucinogens and their cerebrometabolic effects; we expect that hybrid imaging with PET in conjunction with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) should provide especially useful for the next phase of this research.

keywords:
Animals, Humans, Carrier Proteins, Hallucinogens, Positron-Emission Tomography, Tomography, Emission-Computed, Single-Photon, Drug Monitoring, Drug Evaluation, Preclinical, Molecular Structure, Protein Binding, Energy Metabolism, Cerebrovascular Circulation, Image Processing, Computer-Assisted, Molecular Imaging, Biomarkers, Clinical Studies as Topic

topic_tags:
Brain Imaging,Pharmacology,Mechanism of Action,Receptor Pharmacology,Biomarkers,Aging,Emotional Processing,Review Article,Animal Study,In Vitro Study,Drug Interactions

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33922330","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Psilocybin: From Serendipity to Credibility?
authors: Rucker JJ, Young AH.
publication_date: 2021-04-20
doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.659044
pubmed_id: 33967860
source_url: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.659044
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Aging,Clinical Trial,Safety
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:02
abstract:
Psilocybin has a long history of non-medical use and some seem to infer from this that it has therapeutic utility. Early phase clinical trials with psilocybin are encouraging, but suggest only that larger, multicentre trials are required. These are ongoing but will take many years to complete. Meanwhile, retreat centers offering paid experiences with psilocybin truffles have opened in some countries, often using early phase clinical trial data as a basis for bold, public facing claims. This seems unwise. Early phase trials are not designed for their results to be generalized outside the setting they were undertaken in. To do so risks being misleading. Providing what may be seen as an unregulated drug intervention as a paid service is difficult to reconcile with long-held ethical principles underpinning human research and treatment development that were laid down by the 1947 Nuremberg Code and the 1962 Kefauver Harris Amendments. By using psilocybin before it has been properly tested, retreat centers may be undermining their own credibility and the credibility of the wider field.

raw_json:
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title: Trial of Psilocybin versus Escitalopram for Depression.
publication_date: 2021-03-31
doi: 10.1056/nejmoa2032994
pubmed_id: 33852780
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa2032994
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,Receptor Pharmacology,Clinical Trial,Observational Study,Adverse Events
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:02
authors:
Carhart-Harris R, Giribaldi B, Watts R, Baker-Jones M, Murphy-Beiner A, Murphy R, Martell J, Blemings A, Erritzoe D, Nutt DJ.

abstract:
BackgroundPsilocybin may have antidepressant properties, but direct comparisons between psilocybin and established treatments for depression are lacking.MethodsIn a phase 2, double-blind, randomized, controlled trial involving patients with long-standing, moderate-to-severe major depressive disorder, we compared psilocybin with escitalopram, a selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitor, over a 6-week period. Patients were assigned in a 1:1 ratio to receive two separate doses of 25 mg of psilocybin 3 weeks apart plus 6 weeks of daily placebo (psilocybin group) or two separate doses of 1 mg of psilocybin 3 weeks apart plus 6 weeks of daily oral escitalopram (escitalopram group); all the patients received psychological support. The primary outcome was the change from baseline in the score on the 16-item Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology-Self-Report (QIDS-SR-16; scores range from 0 to 27, with higher scores indicating greater depression) at week 6. There were 16 secondary outcomes, including QIDS-SR-16 response (defined as a reduction in score of >50%) and QIDS-SR-16 remission (defined as a score of ≤5) at week 6.ResultsA total of 59 patients were enrolled; 30 were assigned to the psilocybin group and 29 to the escitalopram group. The mean scores on the QIDS-SR-16 at baseline were 14.5 in the psilocybin group and 16.4 in the escitalopram group. The mean (±SE) changes in the scores from baseline to week 6 were -8.0±1.0 points in the psilocybin group and -6.0±1.0 in the escitalopram group, for a between-group difference of 2.0 points (95% confidence interval [CI], -5.0 to 0.9) (P = 0.17). A QIDS-SR-16 response occurred in 70% of the patients in the psilocybin group and in 48% of those in the escitalopram group, for a between-group difference of 22 percentage points (95% CI, -3 to 48); QIDS-SR-16 remission occurred in 57% and 28%, respectively, for a between-group difference of 28 percentage points (95% CI, 2 to 54). Other secondary outcomes generally favored psilocybin over escitalopram, but the analyses were not corrected for multiple comparisons. The incidence of adverse events was similar in the trial groups.ConclusionsOn the basis of the change in depression scores on the QIDS-SR-16 at week 6, this trial did not show a significant difference in antidepressant effects between psilocybin and escitalopram in a selected group of patients. Secondary outcomes generally favored psilocybin over escitalopram, but the analyses of these outcomes lacked correction for multiple comparisons. Larger and longer trials are required to compare psilocybin with established antidepressants. (Funded by the Alexander Mosley Charitable Trust and Imperial College London's Centre for Psychedelic Research; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT03429075.).

keywords:
Humans, Citalopram, Hallucinogens, Antidepressive Agents, Antidepressive Agents, Second-Generation, Double-Blind Method, Adult, Middle Aged, Female, Male, Young Adult, Self Report, Surveys and Questionnaires, Psilocybin, Major Depressive Disorder

raw_json:
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title: A draft reference assembly of the Psilocybe cubensis genome
authors: McKernan K, Kane LT, Crawford S, Chin C, Trippe A, McLaughlin S.
journal: F1000Res
publication_date: 2021-06-14
doi: 10.12688/f1000research.51613.2
source_url: https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.51613.2
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Genomics
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: preprint
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
abstract:
We describe the use of high-fidelity single molecule sequencing to assemble the genome of the psychoactive Psilocybe cubensis mushroom. The genome is 46.6Mb, 46% GC, and in 32 contigs with an N50 of 3.3Mb. The BUSCO completeness scores are 97.6% with 1.2% duplicates. The Psilocybin synthesis cluster exists in a single 3.2Mb contig. The dataset is available from NCBI BioProject with accessions PRJNA687911 and PRJNA700437.

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"PPR356998","source":"PPR","pub_type":null,"publisher":"F1000Res","importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Ethical Concerns about Psilocybin Intellectual Property.
authors: Gerber K, Flores IG, Ruiz AC, Ali I, Ginsberg NL, Schenberg EE.
publication_date: 2020-12-31
doi: 10.1021/acsptsci.0c00171
pubmed_id: 33860186
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsptsci.0c00171
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
abstract:
Since a 1957 exposé in Life Magazine, chemical compounds derived from Psilocybe mushrooms have been the focus of dozens of attempted and successful patents, most recently to treat depression. Regrettably, the Mazatec indigenous communities who stewarded these traditional medicines for millenia are not party to any of these patents, despite a number of international treaties asserting indigenous rights to their intangible cultural heritage.

raw_json:
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publication_date: 2021-03-17
doi: 10.1021/acsptsci.1c00020
pubmed_id: 33860185
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsptsci.1c00020
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,End-of-Life Distress,Clinical Trial,Randomized Controlled Trial,Safety
study_type: Randomized Controlled Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:04
title:
Acute and Sustained Reductions in Loss of Meaning and Suicidal Ideation Following Psilocybin-Assisted Psychotherapy for Psychiatric and Existential Distress in Life-Threatening Cancer.

authors:
Ross S, Agin-Liebes G, Lo S, Zeifman RJ, Ghazal L, Benville J, Franco Corso S, Bjerre Real C, Guss J, Bossis A, Mennenga SE.

abstract:
People with advanced cancer are at heightened risk of desire for hastened death (DHD), suicidal ideation (SI), and completed suicide. Loss of Meaning (LoM), a component of demoralization, can be elevated by a cancer diagnosis and predicts DHD and SI in this population. We completed a randomized controlled trial in which psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy (PAP) produced rapid and sustained improvements in depression, demoralization, and hopelessness in people with cancer. Converging epidemiologic and clinical trial findings suggests a potential antisuicidal effect of this treatment. To probe our hypothesis that PAP relieves SI through its beneficial impacts on depression and demoralization (LoM in particular), we performed secondary analyses assessing within- and between-group differences with regard to LoM and an SI composite score. Among participants with elevated SI at baseline, PAP was associated with within-group reductions in SI that were apparent as early as 8 h and persisted for 6.5 months postdosing. PAP also produced large reductions in LoM from baseline that were apparent 2 weeks after treatment and remained significant and robust at the 6.5 month and 3.2 and 4.5 year follow-ups. Exploratory analyses support our hypothesis and suggest that PAP may be an effective antisuicidal intervention following a cancer diagnosis due to its positive impact on hopelessness and demoralization and its effects on meaning-making in particular. These preliminary results implicate psilocybin treatment as a potentially effective alternative to existing antidepressant medications in patients with cancer that are also suicidal, and warrant further investigation in participants with elevated levels of depression and suicidality.

raw_json:
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title: Investigation of the Structure-Activity Relationships of Psilocybin Analogues.
authors: Klein AK, Chatha M, Laskowski LJ, Anderson EI, Brandt SD, Chapman SJ, McCorvy JD, Halberstadt AL.
publication_date: 2020-12-13
doi: 10.1021/acsptsci.0c00176
pubmed_id: 33860183
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsptsci.0c00176
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Pharmacology,Receptor Pharmacology,Animal Study,In Vitro Study
study_type: Animal Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:02
abstract:
The 5-HT2A receptor is thought to be the primary target for psilocybin (4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) and other serotonergic hallucinogens (psychedelic drugs). Although a large amount of experimental work has been conducted to characterize the pharmacology of psilocybin and its dephosphorylated metabolite psilocin (4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine), there has been little systematic investigation of the structure-activity relationships (SAR) of 4-substituted tryptamine derivatives. In addition, structural analogs of psilocybin containing a 4-acetoxy group, such as 4-acetoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (4-AcO-DMT), have appeared as new designer drugs, but almost nothing is known about their pharmacological effects. To address the gap of information, studies were conducted with 17 tryptamines containing a variety of symmetrical and asymmetrical N,N-dialkyl substituents and either a 4-hydroxy or 4-acetoxy group. Calcium mobilization assays were conducted to assess functional activity at human and mouse 5-HT2 subtypes. Head-twitch response (HTR) studies were conducted in C57BL/6J mice to assess 5-HT2A activation in vivo. All of the compounds acted as full or partial agonists at 5-HT2 subtypes, displaying similar potencies at 5-HT2A and 5-HT2B receptors, but some tryptamines with bulkier N-alkyl groups had lower potency at 5-HT2C receptors and higher 5-HT2B receptor efficacy. In addition, O-acetylation reduced the in vitro 5-HT2A potency of 4-hydroxy-N,N-dialkyltryptamines by about 10- to 20-fold but did not alter agonist efficacy. All of the compounds induce head twitches in mice, consistent with an LSD-like behavioral profile. In contrast to the functional data, acetylation of the 4-hydroxy group had little effect on HTR potency, suggesting that O-acetylated tryptamines may be deacetylated in vivo, acting as prodrugs. In summary, the tryptamine derivatives have psilocybin-like pharmacological properties, supporting their classification as psychedelic drugs.

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authors: Stauffer CS, Anderson BT, Ortigo KM, Woolley J.
publication_date: 2020-12-08
doi: 10.1021/acsptsci.0c00169
pubmed_id: 33860182
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsptsci.0c00169
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,Anxiety,Addiction,Mystical Experience,Treatment-Resistant Depression,Safety
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:02
title:
Psilocybin-Assisted Group Therapy and Attachment: Observed Reduction in Attachment Anxiety and Influences of Attachment Insecurity on the Psilocybin Experience.

abstract:
Attachment insecurity is determined early in life, is a risk factor for psychopathology, and can be measured on two separate continuous dimensions: attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance. Therapeutic changes toward more secure attachment correlate with reduction in psychiatric symptoms. Psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy has demonstrated promise in the treatment of psychopathology, such as treatment-resistant depression and substance use disorders. We hypothesized that psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy would reduce attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance, thus increasing attachment security. We also hypothesized that baseline measures of attachment insecurity, which can reflect a diminished capacity for trust and exploration, would inform the quality of the psilocybin session. Participants were male long-term AIDS survivors with moderate-severe demoralization (n = 18). Using the Experiences in Close Relationships scale, we measured attachment insecurity at baseline as well as immediately, and 3 months, after completion of a brief group therapy course, which included a single midtreatment open-label psilocybin session conducted individually. Clinically important aspects of the psilocybin session were assessed using the revised Mystical Experience Questionnaire and the Challenging Experience Questionnaire the day following psilocybin administration. Self-reported ratings of attachment anxiety decreased significantly from baseline to 3-months post-intervention, t(16) = -2.2; p = 0.045; d rm = 0.45; 95% CI0.01, 0.87. Attachment avoidance did not change significantly. Baseline attachment anxiety was strongly correlated with psilocybin-occasioned mystical-type experiences, r(15) = 0.53, p = 0.029, and baseline attachment avoidance was strongly correlated with psilocybin-related challenging experiences, r(16) = 0.62, p = 0.006. These findings have important implications for the general treatment of psychopathology as well as optimizing psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy as a broadly applicable treatment modality.

raw_json:
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title: Set and Setting: A Randomized Study of Different Musical Genres in Supporting Psychedelic Therapy
journal: PsyArXiv
publication_date: 2020-12-28
doi: 10.1021/acsptsci.0c00187
source_url: https://osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/f5dmt_v1
keywords: Psychiatry, Neuroscience, Social and Behavioral Sciences
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Addiction,Receptor Pharmacology,Mystical Experience
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: PsyArXiv
publication_status: preprint
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:30
raw_json: {"osf_id":"f5dmt_v1","version":1,"reviews_state":"accepted"}
abstract:
Mounting evidence supports the serotonin 2A receptor agonist psilocybin as a psychiatric pharmacotherapy. Little research has experimentally examined how session “set and setting” impacts subjective and therapeutic effects. We analyzed effects of musical genre played during sessions of a psilocybin study for tobacco smoking cessation. Participants (N=10) received psilocybin (20-30mg/70kg) in two sessions, each with a different genre (Western classical versus overtone-based), with order counterbalanced. Participants chose one genre for a third session (30mg/70kg). Mystical experiences scores tended to be higher in overtone-based than Western classical sessions. Six of ten participants chose overtone-based music for a third session. Biologically-confirmed smoking abstinence was similar based on musical choice, with a slight benefit for participants choosing the overtone-based playlist (66.7% versus 50%). These data call into question whether Western classical music typically used in psychedelic therapy holds unique benefit. Broadly, they call for experimentally examining session components toward optimizing psychedelic therapeutic protocols.


title: Discriminative Stimulus Effects of Substituted Tryptamines in Rats.
authors: Gatch MB, Hoch A, Carbonaro TM.
publication_date: 2020-12-28
doi: 10.1021/acsptsci.0c00173
pubmed_id: 33860176
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsptsci.0c00173
substance_tags: psilocin
topic_tags: Abuse Liability
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
abstract:
Novel synthetic compounds have been available for decades as quasi-legal alternatives to controlled substances. The hallucinogen-like effects of eight novel substituted tryptamines were evaluated to determine their potential abuse liability. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were trained to discriminate 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine (DOM, 0.5 mg/kg, i.p., 30 min) from saline. 4-Acetoxy-N,N-diethyltryptamine (4-AcO-DET), 4-hydroxy-N-methyl-N-ethyltryptamine (4-OH-MET), 4-hydroxy-N,N-diethyltryptamine (4-OH-DET), 4-acetoxy-N-methyl-N-isopropyltryptamine (4-AcO-MiPT), 4-acetoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (4-AcO-DMT), 4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (4-OH-DMT, psilocin), 5-methoxy-N-methyl-N-isopropyltryptamine (5-MeO-MiPT), 4-acetoxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine (4-AcO-DiPT), and 4-hydroxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine (4-OH-DiPT) were tested for their ability to substitute for the discriminative stimulus effects of DOM. All test compounds fully substituted for DOM with potencies less than or equal to that of DOM. 4-OH-MET, 4-OH-DET, 4-OH-DMT, and 4-AcO-DMT decreased response rate at doses that fully substituted. Because the test compounds produced DOM-like discriminative stimulus effects, they may have similar abuse liability as DOM. 4-Acetoxy substituted compounds were less potent than 4-hydroxy substituted compounds, and the N,N-diisopropyl compounds were less potent than the dimethyl, diethyl, N-methyl-N-ethyl, and N-methyl-N-isopropyl compounds.

raw_json:
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title: On the Relationship between Classic Psychedelics and Suicidality: A Systematic Review.
authors: Zeifman RJ, Singhal N, Breslow L, Weissman CR.
publication_date: 2021-03-10
doi: 10.1021/acsptsci.1c00024
pubmed_id: 33860173
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsptsci.1c00024
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Clinical Trial,Systematic Review,Review Article,Safety
study_type: Systematic Review
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
abstract:
Use of classic psychedelics (e.g., psilocybin, ayahuasca, and lysergic acid diethylamide) is increasing, and psychedelic therapy is receiving growing attention as a novel mental health intervention. Suicidality remains a potential safety concern associated with classic psychedelics and is, concurrently, a mental health concern that psychedelic therapy may show promise in targeting. Accordingly, further understanding of the relationship between classic psychedelics and suicidality is needed. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review of the relationship between classic psychedelics (both non-clinical psychedelic use and psychedelic therapy) and suicidality. We identified a total of 64 articles, including 41 articles on the association between non-clinical classic psychedelic use and suicidality and 23 articles on the effects of psychedelic therapy on suicidality. Findings on the association between lifetime classic psychedelic use and suicidality were mixed, with studies finding positive, negative, and no significant association. A small number of reports of suicide and decreased suicidality following non-clinical classic psychedelic use were identified. Several cases of suicide in early psychedelic therapy were identified; however, it was unclear whether this was due to psychedelic therapy itself. In recent psychedelic therapy clinical trials, we found no reports of increased suicidality and preliminary evidence for acute and sustained decreases in suicidality following treatment. We identify some remaining questions and provide suggestions for future research on the association between classic psychedelics and suicidality.

raw_json:
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title: Spontaneous and deliberate creative cognition during and after psilocybin exposure.
publication_date: 2021-04-07
doi: 10.1038/s41398-021-01335-5
pubmed_id: 33833225
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01335-5
keywords: Brain, Humans, Hallucinogens, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Cognition, Creativity, Psilocybin
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Brain Imaging,Mechanism of Action,Default Mode Network,Aging,Creativity
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:03
authors:
Mason NL, Kuypers KPC, Reckweg JT, Müller F, Tse DHY, Da Rios B, Toennes SW, Stiers P, Feilding A, Ramaekers JG.

abstract:
Creativity is an essential cognitive ability linked to all areas of our everyday functioning. Thus, finding a way to enhance it is of broad interest. A large number of anecdotal reports suggest that the consumption of psychedelic drugs can enhance creative thinking; however, scientific evidence is lacking. Following a double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group design, we demonstrated that psilocybin (0.17 mg/kg) induced a time- and construct-related differentiation of effects on creative thinking. Acutely, psilocybin increased ratings of (spontaneous) creative insights, while decreasing (deliberate) task-based creativity. Seven days after psilocybin, number of novel ideas increased. Furthermore, we utilized an ultrahigh field multimodal brain imaging approach, and found that acute and persisting effects were predicted by within- and between-network connectivity of the default mode network. Findings add some support to historical claims that psychedelics can influence aspects of the creative process, potentially indicating them as a tool to investigate creativity and subsequent underlying neural mechanisms. Trial NL6007; psilocybin as a tool for enhanced cognitive flexibility; https://www.trialregister.nl/trial/6007.

raw_json:
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authors: Dos Santos RG, Hallak JE, Baker G, Dursun S.
publication_date: 2021-03-18
doi: 10.1177/0269881120986422
pubmed_id: 33740877
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881120986422
substance_tags: psilocybin
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
title:
Hallucinogenic/psychedelic 5HT2A receptor agonists as rapid antidepressant therapeutics: Evidence and mechanisms of action.

abstract:
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is among the most prevalent mental health disorders worldwide, and it is associated with a reduced quality of life and enormous costs to health care systems. Available drug treatments show low-to-moderate response in most patients, with almost a third of patients being non-responders (treatment-resistant). Furthermore, most currently available medications need several weeks to achieve therapeutic effects, and the long-term use of these drugs is often associated with significant unwanted side effects and resultant reductions in treatment compliance. Therefore, more effective, safer, and faster-acting antidepressants with enduring effects are needed. Together with ketamine, psychedelics (or classic or serotoninergic hallucinogens) such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin, and ayahuasca are among the few compounds with recent human evidence of fast-acting antidepressant effects. Several studies in the 1950s to 1970s reported antidepressive and anxiolytic effects of these drugs, which are being confirmed by modern trials (LSD, one trial; psilocybin, five trials; ayahuasca, two trials). The effects of these drugs appear to be produced primarily by their agonism at serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) receptors, especially the 5-HT2A receptor. Considering the overall burden of MDD and the necessity of new therapeutic options, the promising (but currently limited) evidence of safety and efficacy of psychedelics has encouraged the scientific community to explore more fully their beneficial effects in MDD.

keywords:
Humans, Ketamine, Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, Hallucinogens, Antidepressive Agents, Drug Evaluation, Preclinical, Depressive Disorder, Clinical Trials as Topic, Serotonin 5-HT2 Receptor Agonists, Psilocybin

topic_tags:
Depression,Mechanism of Action,Receptor Pharmacology,Clinical Trial,Animal Study,Safety,Adverse Events

raw_json:
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title: Associations between lifetime classic psychedelic use and markers of physical health.
authors: Simonsson O, Sexton JD, Hendricks PS
journal: Journal of psychopharmacology (Oxford, England)
publication_date: 2021-03-31
doi: 10.1177/0269881121996863
pubmed_id: 33719688
source_url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33719688/
keywords: Classic psychedelics, LSD, body mass index, cancer, health, heart disease, psilocybin
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Mechanism of Action,Biomarkers,Observational Study
study_type: Observational Study
source_name: PubMed
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:20:39
raw_json: {"pubmed_id":"33719688"}
abstract:
In recent years, there has been significant research on the mental health effects of classic psychedelic use, but there is very little evidence on how classic psychedelics might influence physical health.
The purpose of the present study was to investigate the associations between lifetime classic psychedelic use and markers of physical health.
Using data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (2015-2018) with 171,766 (unweighted) adults aged 18 or above in the United States, the current study examined the associations between lifetime classic psychedelic use and three markers of physical health (self-reported overall health, body mass index, and heart condition and/or cancer in the past 12 months) while controlling for a range of covariates.
Respondents who reported having tried a classic psychedelic at least once in their lifetime had significantly higher odds of greater self-reported overall health and significantly lower odds of being overweight or obese versus having a normal weight. The association between lifetime classic psychedelic use and having a heart condition and/or cancer in the past 12 months approached conventional levels of significance, with lower odds of having a heart condition and/or cancer in the past 12 months for respondents who had tried a classic psychedelic at least once.
The results of the present study suggest that classic psychedelics may be beneficial to physical health. Future research should investigate the causal effects of classic psychedelics on physical health and evaluate possible mechanisms.


title: Cannabidiol (CBD) and other drug use among young adults who use cannabis in Los Angeles.
authors: Fedorova EV, Wong CF, Ataiants J, Iverson E, Conn BM, Lankenau SE.
publication_date: 2021-02-21
doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108648
pubmed_id: 33676073
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108648
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Chronic Pain,Observational Study,Adolescents
study_type: Observational Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
abstract:
IntroductionCannabidiol (CBD) is purportedly a promising therapeutic agent to provide relief for a variety of medical conditions with mild or no psychoactive effects. However, little is known about young adults who use cannabis and CBD-dominant products, and associations between CBD use and other drug use.MethodsYoung adults (aged 24-32) who currently used cannabis (n = 239) were surveyed in Los Angeles in March 2019 through March 2020. The sample was divided into CBD-dominant (at least 1:1 CBD:THC ratio) and THC-dominant product users. We described CBD forms, reasons and conditions for CBD use and examined between-group differences in sociodemographic characteristics, cannabis practices, health and other drug use.ResultsCBD-dominant users were more likely to be female, use cannabis at lower frequency and amount (except for edible/drinkable/oral products), self-report medical motivation for cannabis use, use cannabis for pain and report more health problems. Oil, flower, topicals and sprays/drops/tinctures were the most prevalent CBD forms. Psychological problems and pain were commonly reported conditions and medical reasons for CBD use. CBD-dominant users were more likely to report illicit drug use, where psilocybin use was markedly different between the two groups.ConclusionsCBD use was associated with health histories and motivations linked to pain and psychological problems. Positive association between CBD use and illicit drug use may indicate self-medication for psychological conditions. Future studies should evaluate the effectiveness of various CBD forms and dose regimens for treatment of pain and psychological problems, and as a potential intervention for decreasing other drug use and associated harms.

keywords:
Humans, Cannabis, Pain, Substance-Related Disorders, Cannabidiol, Hallucinogens, Cohort Studies, Longitudinal Studies, Adolescent, Adult, Los Angeles, Female, Male, Young Adult, Self Report, Dronabinol, Marijuana Use

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33676073","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Dose-response relationships of psilocybin-induced subjective experiences in humans.
authors: Hirschfeld T, Schmidt TT.
publication_date: 2021-03-03
doi: 10.1177/0269881121992676
pubmed_id: 33663259
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881121992676
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Consciousness,Mystical Experience,Meta-Analysis
study_type: Meta-Analysis
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:02
abstract:
BackgroundPsilocybin is the psychoactive component in Psilocybe mushrooms ('magic mushrooms'). Whether and how the quality of the psilocybin-induced experience might mediate beneficial health outcomes is currently under investigation, for example, in therapeutic applications. However, to date, no meta-analysis has investigated the dose-dependency of subjective experiences across available studies.AimEstablishing dose-response relationships of the subjective experiences induced by psilocybin in healthy study participants and a comparison of patient groups.MethodWe applied a linear meta-regression approach, based on the robust variance estimation framework, to obtain linear dose-response relationship estimates on questionnaire ratings after oral psilocybin administration. Data were obtained from the Altered States Database, which contains data extracted from MEDLINE-listed journal articles that used standardized and validated questionnaires: the Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale, the Mystical Experience Questionnaire and the Hallucinogen Rating Scale.ResultsPsilocybin dose positively correlated with ratings on most factors and scales, mainly those referring to perceptual alterations and positively experienced ego dissolution. Measures referring to challenging experiences exhibited small effects and were barely modulated by dose.ConclusionPsilocybin intensified almost all characteristics of altered states of consciousness assessed with the given questionnaires. Because subjective experiences are not only determined by dose, but also by individual and environmental factors, the results may only apply to controlled laboratory experiments and not to recreational use. This paper may serve as a general literature citation for the use of psilocybin in experimental and clinical research, to compare expected and observed subjective experiences.

keywords:
Humans, Consciousness Disorders, Hallucinations, Hallucinogens, Psychometrics, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Mysticism, Behavior Rating Scale, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33663259","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Garcia-Romeu A, Barrett FS, Carbonaro TM, Johnson MW, Griffiths RR.
publication_date: 2021-02-19
doi: 10.1177/0269881121991822
pubmed_id: 33611977
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881121991822
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,Addiction,Receptor Pharmacology,Mystical Experience
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:03
title:
Optimal dosing for psilocybin pharmacotherapy: Considering weight-adjusted and fixed dosing approaches.

abstract:
BackgroundGrowing evidence suggests psilocybin, a naturally occurring psychedelic, is a safe and promising pharmacotherapy for treatment of mood and substance use disorders when administered as part of a structured intervention. In most trials to date, psilocybin dose has been administered on a weight-adjusted basis rather than the more convenient procedure of administering a fixed dose.AimsThe present post hoc analyses sought to determine whether the subjective effects of psilocybin are affected by body weight when psilocybin is administered on a weight-adjusted basis and when psilocybin is administered as a fixed dose.MethodsWe analyzed acute subjective drug effects (mystical, challenging, and intensity) associated with therapeutic outcomes from ten previous studies (total N = 288) in which psilocybin was administered in the range 20 to 30 mg/70 kg (inclusive). Separate multivariate regression analyses examined the relationships between demographic variables including body weight and subjective effects in participants receiving 20 mg/70 kg (n = 120), participants receiving 30 mg/70 kg (n = 182), and participants whose weight-adjusted dose was about 25 mg (to approximate the fixed dose that is currently being evaluated in registration trials for major depressive disorder) (n = 103).ResultsIn the 20 mg/70 kg and 30 mg/70 kg weight-adjusted groups, and in the fixed dose group, no significant associations were found between subjective effects and demographic variables including body weight or sex. Across a wide range of body weights (49 to 113 kg) the present results showed no evidence that body weight affected subjective effects of psilocybin.ConclusionsThese results suggest that the convenience and lower cost of administering psilocybin as a fixed dose outweigh any potential advantage of weight-adjusted dosing.

keywords:
Humans, Neoplasms, Body Weight, Hallucinogens, Drug Monitoring, Treatment Outcome, Affect, Grief, Fear, Self Concept, Sex Factors, Mysticism, Adult, Female, Male, Drug Dosage Calculations, Self-Assessment, Serotonin 5-HT2 Receptor Agonists, Psilocybin, Cigarette Smoking, Psychosocial Functioning, Major Depressive Disorder

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33611977","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Use and abuse of dissociative and psychedelic drugs in adolescence.
authors: Bates MLS, Trujillo KA.
publication_date: 2021-01-27
doi: 10.1016/j.pbb.2021.173129
pubmed_id: 33515586
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2021.173129
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Addiction,Review Article,Animal Study,Adolescents,Safety
study_type: Review Article
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
abstract:
Adolescence is a period of profound developmental changes, which run the gamut from behavioral and neural to physiological and hormonal. It is also a time at which there is an increased propensity to engage in risk-taking and impulsive behaviors like drug use. This review examines the human and preclinical literature on adolescent drug use and its consequences, with a focus on dissociatives (PCP, ketamine, DXM), classic psychedelics (LSD, psilocybin), and MDMA. It is the case for all the substances reviewed here that very little is known about their effects in adolescent populations. An emerging aspect of the literature is that dissociatives and MDMA produce mixed reinforcing and aversive effects and that the balance between reinforcement and aversion may differ between adolescents and adults, with consequences for drug use and addiction. However, many studies have failed to directly compare adults and adolescents, which precludes definitive conclusions about these consequences. Other important areas that are largely unexplored are sex differences during adolescence and the long-term consequences of adolescent use of these substances. We provide suggestions for future work to address the gaps we identified in the literature. Given the widespread use of these drugs among adolescent users, and the potential for therapeutic use, this work will be crucial to understanding abuse potential and consequences of use in this developmental stage.

keywords:
Animals, Humans, Substance-Related Disorders, N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, Ketamine, Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, Dextromethorphan, Phencyclidine, Hallucinogens, Risk-Taking, Age Factors, Adolescent, Adult, Female, Male, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33515586","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Stenbæk DS, Madsen MK, Ozenne B, Kristiansen S, Burmester D, Erritzoe D, Knudsen GM, Fisher PM.
publication_date: 2020-10-07
doi: 10.1177/0269881120959609
pubmed_id: 33501857
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881120959609
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Receptor Pharmacology,Consciousness,Mystical Experience
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:03
title:
Brain serotonin 2A receptor binding predicts subjective temporal and mystical effects of psilocybin in healthy humans.

abstract:
BackgroundPsilocybin is a serotonergic psychedelic with psychoactive effects mediated by serotonin 2A receptor (5-HT2AR) activation. It produces an acute psychedelic altered state of consciousness with a unique phenomenology that can be temporally characterized by three intensity phases: onset of psychoactive effect, a peak plateau and return to normal consciousness.AimsWe evaluated whether pre-drug brain 5-HT2AR binding predicted the three phases of psilocybin subjective drug intensity (SDI) and retrospective self-report of mystical type experiences in healthy individuals.MethodSixteen participants completed a pre-drug [11C]Cimbi-36 positron emission tomography scan to assess 5-HT2AR binding. On a separate day, participants completed a single psilocybin session (oral dose range 0.2-0.3 mg/kg), during which SDI was assessed every 20 min. The Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ) was completed at the end of the session. The three SDI phases were modelled using segmented linear regressions. We evaluated the associations between neocortex 5-HT2AR binding and SDI/MEQ outcomes using linear regression models.ResultsNeocortex 5-HT2AR was statistically significantly negatively associated with peak plateau duration and positively with time to return to normal waking consciousness. It was also statistically significantly negatively associated with MEQ total score.ConclusionThis is the first study to investigate how individual brain 5-HT2AR binding predicts subjective effects of a single dose of psilocybin. Our findings reinforce the role of cerebral 5-HT2AR in shaping the temporal and mystical features of the psychedelic experience. Future studies should examine whether individual brain levels of 5-HT2AR have an impact on therapeutic outcomes in clinical studies.

keywords:
Brain, Humans, Receptors, Serotonin, 5-HT2, Hallucinogens, Psychotropic Drugs, Positron-Emission Tomography, Self Concept, Consciousness, Mysticism, Adult, Female, Male, Serotonin 5-HT2 Receptor Agonists, Psilocybin, Outcome Assessment, Health Care

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33501857","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Davis AK, Barrett FS, So S, Gukasyan N, Swift TC, Griffiths RR.
publication_date: 2021-01-08
doi: 10.1177/0269881120967878
pubmed_id: 33427007
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881120967878
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Wellbeing,Mystical Experience,Psychological Flexibility,Observational Study
study_type: Observational Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:04
title:
Development of the Psychological Insight Questionnaire among a sample of people who have consumed psilocybin or LSD.

abstract:
BackgroundSeveral measures have been developed to examine acute psychedelic effects (e.g. mystical-type and challenging experiences), but no measure assesses acute psychologically insightful experiences that may occur during psychedelic experiences.AimThe purpose of this study was to develop and examine the psychometric properties of the Psychological Insight Questionnaire.MethodA cross-sectional survey study among psilocybin and LSD users. Respondents (n=1661; Mage=22.9, standard deviation=8.5; Caucasian/White=83%; non-Hispanic=91%; men=72%; United States resident=66%) completed an Internet-based survey.ResultsThe Psychological Insight Questionnaire consists of 23 items with two subscales: (a) Avoidance and Maladaptive Patterns Insights and (b) Goals and Adaptive Patterns Insights. Construct validity of the Psychological Insight Questionnaire was supported by strong correlations of the Psychological Insight Questionnaire (and Avoidance and Maladaptive Patterns Insights and Goals and Adaptive Patterns Insights subscales) scores with the insight subscale of the Session Impacts Scale, and weak-to-moderate correlations with the Mystical Experiences and Challenging Experiences Questionnaires. Furthermore, Psychological Insight Questionnaire (and Avoidance and Maladaptive Patterns Insights and Goals and Adaptive Patterns Insights subscales) scores were moderately-to-strongly correlated with retrospectively reported increases in psychological flexibility, and well-being/life satisfaction that were attributed to a memorable psychedelic experience. Lastly, incremental validity was established showing that the Psychological Insight Questionnaire (and Avoidance and Maladaptive Patterns Insights subscale) scores predict unique variance in changes in psychological flexibility, and Psychological Insight Questionnaire (and Avoidance and Maladaptive Patterns Insights and Goals and Adaptive Patterns Insights subscales) scores predict changes in well-being and life satisfaction, beyond measures of acute mystical-type and challenging effects.ConclusionsThe Psychological Insight Questionnaire has the potential to extend the understanding of the acute and enduring effects of psychedelics. Further longitudinal research is necessary to determine the long-term predictive validity of the Psychological Insight Questionnaire and to examine the role of psychological insight in predicting therapeutic outcomes.

keywords:
Humans, Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, Hallucinogens, Cross-Sectional Studies, Reproducibility of Results, Adaptation, Psychological, Avoidance Learning, Psychometrics, Mysticism, Adult, Female, Male, Surveys and Questionnaires, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33427007","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: A Dendrite-Focused Framework for Understanding the Actions of Ketamine and Psychedelics.
authors: Savalia NK, Shao LX, Kwan AC.
publication_date: 2020-12-20
doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2020.11.008
pubmed_id: 33358035
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2020.11.008
keywords: Dendrites, Humans, Ketamine, Hallucinogens, Antidepressive Agents, Depression, Neuronal Plasticity
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,Neuroplasticity,Receptor Pharmacology,Toxicity
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
abstract:
Pilot studies have hinted that serotonergic psychedelics such as psilocybin may relieve depression, and could possibly do so by promoting neural plasticity. Intriguingly, another psychotomimetic compound, ketamine, is a fast-acting antidepressant and induces synapse formation. The similarities in behavioral and neural effects have been puzzling because the compounds target distinct molecular receptors in the brain. In this opinion article, we develop a conceptual framework that suggests the actions of ketamine and serotonergic psychedelics may converge at the dendrites, to both enhance and suppress membrane excitability. We speculate that mismatches in the opposing actions on dendritic excitability may relate to these compounds' cell-type and region selectivity, their moderate range of effects and toxicity, and their plasticity-promoting capacities.

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33358035","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Persistent Tinnitus after Inhaled N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT).
authors: Diab H, Malcolm B.
publication_date: 2020-11-25
doi: 10.1080/02791072.2020.1847366
pubmed_id: 33242285
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2020.1847366
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,Anxiety,Addiction,Mechanism of Action,Microdosing,Review Article,Case Report
study_type: Review Article
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
abstract:
This case report describes a 39-year-old male with remote history of polysubstance use disorder and depression who developed tinnitus after use of inhaled N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). Although development of ear ringing was attributed to use on a single occasion, tinnitus occurred within the context of a larger self-experiment involving weekly microdoses of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Distress and anxiety over the ear ringing prompted evaluation by an audiologist, primary care physician, and consultant psychopharmacologist. Tinnitus persisted for several months, although intensity and ability to cope with symptoms improved over time. A microdose of psilocybin mushrooms exacerbated tinnitus on two separate occasions, after which psychedelics were discontinued. Psychedelics are associated with a range of acute sensory changes including auditory phenomenon, although have not previously been associated with tinnitus in medical literature. Here, we present a probable case of tinnitus associated with DMT use and review potential underlying mechanisms connecting psychedelics and tinnitus.

keywords:
Humans, Tinnitus, N,N-Dimethyltryptamine, Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, Hallucinogens, Adult, Male, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33242285","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Lugo-Radillo A, Cortes-Lopez JL.
publication_date: 2020-11-21
doi: 10.1080/02791072.2020.1849879
pubmed_id: 33225874
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2020.1849879
keywords: Humans, Agaricales, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Adult, Male, Psilocybin
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: OCD
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:03
title:
Long-term Amelioration of OCD Symptoms in a Patient with Chronic Consumption of Psilocybin-containing Mushrooms.

abstract:
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a chronic neuropsychiatric condition, characterized by obsessions and compulsions, which is usually disabling for the suffering individual. The first-line treatment is not effective in all patients. There is evidence showing the effectiveness of psilocybin and psilocybin-containing mushrooms in the treatment of OCD symptoms. We present the case of a male adult with OCD who showed a clinically meaningful reduction of his OCD symptomatology after the consumption of psilocybin-containing mushrooms. Future research will determine if psilocybin and other psychoactive compounds of psilocybin-containing mushrooms are effective and safe for the treatment of OCD.

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33225874","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: [Ketamine, psilocybin, and rapid acting antidepressant: new promise for psychiatry?]
authors: Bottemanne H, Claret A, Fossati P.
publication_date: 2020-11-11
doi: 10.1016/j.encep.2020.08.006
pubmed_id: 33190819
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.encep.2020.08.006
keywords: Humans, Ketamine, Antidepressive Agents, Psychiatry, Psilocybin
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,Mechanism of Action,Receptor Pharmacology,Biomarkers,Healthcare Workers
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:04
abstract:
The hypothesis of monoaminergic deficiency has long dominated the conceptual framework for the development of new antidepressant strategies, but the limits of conventional antidepressant treatments targeting monoaminergic signaling have motivated the search for new antidepressant pathways. The success of ketamine in the management of depressive disorders has provoked a renewed interest in hallucinogenic substances such as psilocybin targeting the serotonergic signaling 5HT2A and neurosteroid allosteric modulator of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABAA) receptors such as brexanolone. Unlike conventional treatments, these modulators of glutamatergic, serotonergic and GABAergic systems exert a rapid antidepressant effect ranging from 24hours to a week. Apart from their clinical interest and the fantasized search for a "miracle" molecule that jointly meets the expectations of patients and clinicians, these new targets could lead to the identification of potential new biomarkers for the development of rapid-acting antidepressants and redefine therapeutic strategies in mood disorders.

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33190819","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Jefsen OH, Elfving B, Wegener G, Müller HK.
publication_date: 2020-11-03
doi: 10.1177/0269881120959614
pubmed_id: 33143539
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881120959614
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Depression,Anxiety,Addiction,OCD,Neuroplasticity,Animal Study,Treatment-Resistant Depression
study_type: Animal Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:03
title:
Transcriptional regulation in the rat prefrontal cortex and hippocampus after a single administration of psilocybin.

abstract:
BackgroundPsilocybin is a serotonergic psychedelic found in "magic mushrooms" with a putative therapeutic potential for treatment-resistant depression, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and addiction. In rodents, psilocybin acutely induces plasticity-related immediate early genes in cortical tissue; however, studies into the effects on subcortical regions, of different doses, and the subsequent translation of corresponding proteins are lacking.MethodsWe examined the acute effects of a single administration of psilocybin (0.5-20 mg/kg) on the expression of selected genes in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. In total, 46 target genes and eight reference genes were assessed using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Corresponding protein levels of the three most commonly regulated genes were assessed using Western blotting.ResultsIn the prefrontal cortex, psilocybin increased the expression of Cebpb, c-Fos, Dups1, Fosb, Junb, Iκβ-α, Nr4a1, P11, Psd95, and Sgk1, and decreased the expression of Clk1. In the hippocampus, psilocybin strongly increased the expression of Arrdc2, Dusp1, Iκβ-α, and Sgk1 in a dose-dependent manner, and decreased the expression of Arc, Clk1, Egr2, and Ptgs2. Protein levels of Sgk1, Dusp1, and Iκβ-α showed only partial agreement with transcriptional patterns, stressing the importance of assessing downstream translation when investigating rapid gene responses.ConclusionThe present study demonstrates that psilocybin rapidly induces gene expression related to neuroplasticity, biased towards the prefrontal cortex, compared to the hippocampus. Our findings provide further evidence for the rapid plasticity-promoting effects of psilocybin.

keywords:
Hippocampus, Prefrontal Cortex, Animals, Rats, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, Cytoskeletal Proteins, Nerve Tissue Proteins, Hallucinogens, Gene Expression Regulation, Neuronal Plasticity, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Genes, Immediate-Early, Genes, fos, Early Growth Response Protein 2, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33143539","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Complete mitochondrial genome sequence of Gymnopilus junonius.
authors: Cho SE, Jo JW, Kwag YN, Lee H, Chung JW, Oh SH, Kim CS.
publication_date: 2021-03-17
doi: 10.1080/23802359.2021.1895692
pubmed_id: 33796724
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1080/23802359.2021.1895692
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Mitochondrial Function,Genomics
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
abstract:
Gymnopilus junonius, a well-known poisonous mushroom, is distributed worldwide. It contains a hallucinogenic alkaloid psilocybin and several other bioactive compounds. The mitochondrial genome, a circular DNA molecule of 161,145 bp, comprises 15 protein-coding genes, 24 transfer RNA genes, and 2 ribosomal RNA genes. The guanine-cytosine content was 31.56%. Based on the mitochondrial genome sequence, a phylogenetic tree was constructed to demonstrate the phylogenetic relationship. In this study, the phylogenetic positions of G. junonius and its related genera were determined.

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33796724","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Khan A, Singh G, Jacob J.
publication_date: 2021-03-15
doi: 10.7759/cureus.13919
pubmed_id: 33880270
source_url: https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.13919
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Older Adults,Toxicity
study_type: Other
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
title:
A Rare Presentation of Anticholinergic Toxicity in a Young Patient Due to Over-The-Counter Cold Medicines.

abstract:
Anticholinergic toxicity is a relatively uncommon occurrence. When it does occur, it is usually attributed to an overdose of anticholinergic agents, especially in the elderly population. In younger patients, anticholingeric toxicity is usually due to an intentional overdose in a suicide attempt, accidental exposure to jimson weed or deadly nightshade plant, or the combination of anticholinergic drugs with recreational drugs (psilocybin mushroom). Over-the-counter cold medicines are well known to contain a variety of anticholinergic substances, the most well-known being diphenhydramine. Uncommonly, these readily available substances can produce anticholinergic toxicity in elderly patients, even when appropriate dosages are consumed. Younger patients are less likely to develop this clinical picture, due to higher renal clearance and lower drug volume of distribution. Nonetheless, clinical suspicion should remain high in the younger population. Patients can present with fever, tachycardia, diplopia, urinary retention, dry mucous membranes, and altered mental status. This case provides awareness to the unlikely complication of over-the-counter cold medicines in a young 19-year-old patient, while highlighting the need for diligent history taking and deliberate use of physostigmine in patients with altered mental status.

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33880270","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: Psychedelic Harm Reduction and Integration: A Transtheoretical Model for Clinical Practice.
authors: Gorman I, Nielson EM, Molinar A, Cassidy K, Sabbagh J
journal: Frontiers in psychology
publication_date: 2020-12-31
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.645246
pubmed_id: 33796055
source_url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33796055/
keywords: MDMA, PHRI, harm reduction, integration, preparation, psilocybin, psychedelics, psychotherapy
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Addiction,Drug Interactions
study_type: Other
source_name: PubMed
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:20:39
raw_json: {"pubmed_id":"33796055"}
abstract:
Psychedelic Harm Reduction and Integration (PHRI) is a transtheoretical and transdiagnostic clinical approach to working with patients who are using or considering using psychedelics in any context. The ongoing discussion of psychedelics in academic research and mainstream media, coupled with recent law enforcement deprioritization of psychedelics and compassionate use approvals for psychedelic-assisted therapy, make this model exceedingly timely. Given the prevalence of psychedelic use, the therapeutic potential of psychedelics, and the unique cultural and historical context in which psychedelics are placed, it is important that mental health providers have an understanding of the unique motivations, experiences, and needs of people who use them. PHRI incorporates elements of harm reduction psychotherapy and psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy, and can be applied in both brief and ongoing psychotherapy interactions. PHRI represents a shift away from assessment limited to untoward outcomes of psychedelic use and abstinence-based addiction treatment paradigms and toward a stance of compassionate, destigmatizing acceptance of patients' choices. Considerations for assessment, preparation, and working with difficult experiences are presented.


authors: Dos Santos RG, Bouso JC, Rocha JM, Rossi GN, Hallak JE.
publication_date: 2021-03-04
doi: 10.2147/rmhp.s300656
pubmed_id: 33707976
source_url: https://doi.org/10.2147/rmhp.s300656
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Mechanism of Action,Receptor Pharmacology,Clinical Trial
study_type: Clinical Trial
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:05
title:
The Use of Classic Hallucinogens/Psychedelics in a Therapeutic Context: Healthcare Policy Opportunities and Challenges.

abstract:
Psychedelics or serotonergic hallucinogens are a group of substances that share the agonism of serotonergic 5-HT2A receptors as their main mechanism of action. Its main effects include changes in perception, cognitive process, and mood. Despite being used for centuries by different cultures in ritual contexts, these substances have currently aroused the interest of science and industry for their promising antidepressant, anxiolytic, and anti-addictive effects. Considering this evidence, this article aims to explore some of the possible health policy challenges to integrate these therapeutic tools into broad and heterogeneous health systems. As a main benefit, these substances produce rapid and enduring effects with the administration of single or few doses, which could lead to new treatment possibilities for patients with severe mental disorders resistant to the usual medications. The main challenge is associated with the fact that these substances remain scheduled in most countries and are associated with social stigma related to their recreational use (especially LSD and psilocybin). This situation makes it exceedingly difficult to conduct clinical trials, although international conventions allow such research. Ethically, this could be interpreted as a violation of human rights since thousands of people are prevented from having access to possible benefits. Interestingly, ritual ayahuasca use is more acceptable to the public than the use of psilocybin-containing mushrooms or LSD. The controlled, clinical use of LSD and psilocybin seems to be less criticized and is being explored by the industry. Rigorous scientific evidence coupled with industrial interests (LSD and psilocybin), together with respect for traditional uses (ayahuasca) and international conventions, seems to be the best way for these drugs to be integrated into health systems in the next years. Which highlights the need for an urgent dialogue between science, health system, society, and politics.

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33707976","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


authors: Odland AU, Kristensen JL, Andreasen JT.
publication_date: 2020-12-27
doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.113093
pubmed_id: 33359368
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2020.113093
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: OCD,Mechanism of Action,Receptor Pharmacology,Animal Study
study_type: Animal Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:03
title:
Investigating the role of 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptor activation in the effects of psilocybin, DOI, and citalopram on marble burying in mice.

abstract:
Psychedelic drugs acting as 5-hydroxyptryptamine 2A receptor (5-HT2AR) agonists have shown promise as viable treatments of psychiatric disorders, including obsessive-compulsive disorder. The marble burying test is a test of compulsive-like behavior in mice, and psychedelics acting as 5-HT2AR agonists can reduce digging in this test. We assessed the 5-HT2R contribution to the mechanisms of two 5-HT2A agonists on digging behavior in female NMRI mice, using citalopram as a reference compound. While the 5-HT2AR antagonist M100907 blocked the effect of DOI and the 5-HT2CR antagonist SB242084 blocked the effect of citalopram, neither antagonist blocked the effect of psilocybin. This study confirms 5-HT2AR agonism as a mechanism for reduced compulsive-like digging in the MB test and suggests that 5-HT2A and 5-HT2CRs can work in parallel on this type of behavior. Our results with psilocybin suggest that a 5-HT2R-independent mechanism also contributes to the effect of psilocybin on repetitive digging behavior.

keywords:
Animals, Mice, Disease Models, Animal, Aminopyridines, Amphetamines, Citalopram, Fluorobenzenes, Piperidines, Indoles, Receptor, Serotonin, 5-HT2A, Receptor, Serotonin, 5-HT2C, Serotonin Antagonists, Behavior, Animal, Compulsive Behavior, Female, Serotonin 5-HT2 Receptor Agonists, Psilocybin, Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33359368","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


title: The acute effects of classic psychedelics on memory in humans.
authors: Healy CJ.
publication_date: 2021-01-08
doi: 10.1007/s00213-020-05756-w
pubmed_id: 33420592
source_url: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-020-05756-w
substance_tags: psilocybin
topic_tags: Mechanism of Action,Review Article,Case Report,Observational Study,Healthcare Workers
study_type: Review Article
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:06
abstract:
RationaleMemory plays a central role in the psychedelic experience. The spontaneous recall and immersive reliving of autobiographical memories has frequently been noted by researchers and clinicians as a salient phenomenon in the profile of subjective effects of classic psychedelic drugs such as psilocybin, LSD, and ayahuasca. The ability for psychedelics to provoke vivid memories has been considered important to their clinical efficacy.ObjectiveThis review aims to examine and aggregate the findings from experimental, observational, and qualitative studies on the acute modulation of memory by classic psychedelics in humans.MethodA literature search was conducted using PubMed and PsycInfo as well as manual review of references from eligible studies. Publications reporting quantitative and/or qualitative findings were included; animal studies and case reports were excluded.ResultsClassic psychedelics produce dose-dependently increasing impairments in memory task performance, such that low doses produce no impairment and higher doses produce increasing levels of impairment. This pattern has been observed in tasks assessing spatial and verbal working memory, semantic memory, and non-autobiographical episodic memory. Such impairments may be less pronounced among experienced psychedelic users. Classic psychedelics also increase the vividness of autobiographical memories and frequently stimulate the recall and/or re-experiencing of autobiographical memories, often memories that are affectively intense (positively or negatively valenced) and that had been avoided and/or forgotten prior to the experience.ConclusionsClassic psychedelics dose-dependently impair memory task performance but may enhance autobiographical memory. These findings are relevant to the understanding of psychological mechanisms of action of psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy.

keywords:
Humans, Banisteriopsis, Memory Disorders, Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, Hallucinogens, Memory, Short-Term, Mental Recall, Psychotherapy, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Memory, Episodic, Psilocybin

raw_json:
{"europe_pmc_id":"33420592","source":"MED","pub_type":null,"publisher":null,"importer":"Europe PMC"}


publication_date: 2021-02-25
doi: 10.3389/fphar.2021.640241
pubmed_id: 33716753
source_url: https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.640241
substance_tags: psilocybin,psilocin
topic_tags: Depression,Animal Study
study_type: Animal Study
source_name: Europe PMC
publication_status: published
date_added: 2026-07-01 06:54:14
last_checked: 2026-07-01 11:22:02
title:
Low Doses of Psilocybin and Ketamine Enhance Motivation and Attention in Poor Performing Rats: Evidence for an Antidepressant Property.

authors:
Higgins GA, Carroll NK, Brown M, MacMillan C, Silenieks LB, Thevarkunnel S, Izhakova J, Magomedova L, DeLannoy I, Sellers EM.

abstract:
Long term benefits following short-term administration of high psychedelic doses of serotonergic and dissociative hallucinogens, typified by psilocybin and ketamine respectively, support their potential as treatments for psychiatric conditions such as major depressive disorder. The high psychedelic doses induce perceptual experiences which are associated with therapeutic benefit. There have also been anecdotal reports of these drugs being used at what are colloquially referred to as "micro" doses to improve mood and cognitive function, although currently there are recognized limitations to their clinical and preclinical investigation. In the present studies we have defined a low dose and plasma exposure range in rats for both ketamine (0.3-3 mg/kg [10-73 ng/ml]) and psilocybin/psilocin (0.05-0.1 mg/kg [7-12 ng/ml]), based on studies which identified these as sub-threshold for the induction of behavioral stereotypies. Tests of efficacy were focused on depression-related endophenotypes of anhedonia, amotivation and cognitive dysfunction using low performing male Long Evans rats trained in two food motivated tasks: a progressive ratio (PR) and serial 5-choice (5-CSRT) task. Both acute doses of ketamine (1-3 mg/kg IP) and psilocybin (0.05-0.1 mg/kg SC) pretreatment increased break point for food (PR task), and improved attentional accuracy and a measure of impulsive action (5-CSRT task). In each case, effect size was modest and largely restricted to test subjects characterized as "low performing". Furthermore, both drugs showed a similar pattern of effect across both tests. The present studies provide a framework for the future study of ketamine and psilocybin at low doses and plasma exposures, and help to establish the use of these lower concentrations of serotonergic and dissociative hallucinogens both as a valid scientific construct, and as having a therapeutic utility.

raw_json:
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