2018
dos Santos, R. G., Bouso, J. C., Alcázar-Córcoles, M. Á., & Hallak, J. E. C. (2018). Efficacy, tolerability, and safety of serotonergic psychedelics for the management of mood, anxiety, and substance-use disorders: a systematic review of systematic reviews. Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/17512433.2018.1511424
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“INTRODUCTION Mood, anxiety, and substance-use disorders are among the most prevalent psychiatric disorders in the population. Although several pharmacological treatments are available, they are not effective for a significant proportion of patients and are associated with several adverse reactions. Therefore, new treatments should be explored. Recent studies suggest that serotonergic hallucinogens/psychedelics including ayahuasca, psilocybin, and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) have anxiolytic, antidepressive, and antiaddictive effects. Areas Covered: A systematic review of systematic reviews assessing the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of serotonergic hallucinogens/psychedelic was performed using the PubMed data base until 11 April 2018. Systematic reviews with or without meta-analysis were analyzed, but only reviews that described at least one randomized controlled trial (RCT) were included. Expert Commentary: Psilocybin and LSD reduced anxiety and depression in cancer patients and symptoms of alcohol and tobacco dependence, and ayahuasca reduced depression symptoms in treatment-resistant depression. Although the results are promising, several studies were open label, and only few were RCTs, and most had small sample sizes and a short duration. Single or few doses of these drugs seem to be well tolerated, but long-term studies are lacking. New RCTs with bigger samples and longer duration are needed to replicate these findings.
Gabay, A. S., Carhart-Harris, R. L., Mazibuko, N., Kempton, M. J., Morrison, P. D., Nutt, D. J., & Mehta, M. A. (2018). Psilocybin and mdma reduce costly punishment in the ultimatum game. Scientific Reports
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-26656-2
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“Disruptions in social decision-making are becoming evident in many psychiatric conditions. These are studied using paradigms investigating the psychological mechanisms underlying interpersonal interactions, such as the Ultimatum Game (UG). Rejection behaviour in the UG represents altruistic punishment – the costly punishment of norm violators – but the mechanisms underlying it require clarification. To investigate the psychopharmacology of UG behaviour, we carried out two studies with healthy participants, employing serotonergic agonists: psilocybin (open-label, within-participant design, N = 19) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; placebo-controlled, double-blind, crossover design, N = 20). We found that both MDMA and psilocybin reduced rejection of unfair offers (odds ratio: 0.57 and 0.42, respectively). The reduction in rejection rate following MDMA was associated with increased prosociality (R2 = 0.26, p = 0.025). In the MDMA study, we investigated third-party decision-making and proposer behaviour. MDMA did not reduce rejection in the third-party condition, but produced an increase in the amount offered to others (Cohen’s d = 0.82). We argue that these compounds altered participants’ conceptualisation of ‘social reward’, placing more emphasis on the direct relationship with interacting partners. With these compounds showing efficacy in drug-assisted psychotherapy, these studies are an important step in the further characterisation of their psychological effects.
Barrett, F. S., Schlienz, N. J., Lembeck, N., Waqas, M., & Vandrey, R. (2018). “Hallucinations” Following Acute Cannabis Dosing: A Case Report and Comparison to Other Hallucinogenic Drugs. Cannabis And Cannabinoid Research
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1089/can.2017.0052
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“Abstract Introduction: Cannabis has been historically classified as a hallucinogen. However, subjective cannabis effects do not typically include hallucinogen-like effects. Empirical reports of hallucinogen-like effects produced by cannabis in controlled settings, particularly among healthy research volunteers, are rare and have mostly occurred after administration of purified Δ-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) rather than whole plant cannabis. Methods: The case of a healthy 30-year-old male who experienced auditory and visual hallucinations in a controlled laboratory study after inhaling vaporized cannabis that contained 25 mg THC (case dose) is presented. Ratings on the Hallucinogen Rating Scale (HRS) following the case dose are compared with HRS ratings obtained from the participant after other doses of cannabis and with archival HRS data from laboratory studies involving acute doses of cannabis, psilocybin, dextromethorphan (DXM), and salvinorin A. Results: Scores on the Volition subscale of the HRS were ..
Kaelen, M., Giribaldi, B., Raine, J., Evans, L., Timmermann, C., Rodriguez, N., et al. (2018). Correction to: The hidden therapist: evidence for a central role of music in psychedelic therapy (Psychopharmacology, (2018), 235, 2, (505-519), 10.1007/s00213-017-4820-5). Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-4886-8
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“RATIONALE: Recent studies have supported the safety and efficacy of psychedelic therapy for mood disorders and addiction. Music is considered an important component in the treatment model, but little empirical research has been done to examine the magnitude and nature of its therapeutic role., OBJECTIVES: The present study assessed the influence of music on the acute experience and clinical outcomes of psychedelic therapy., METHODS: Semi-structured interviews inquired about the different ways in which music influenced the experience of 19 patients undergoing psychedelic therapy with psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression. Interpretative phenomenological analysis was applied to the interview data to identify salient themes. In addition, ratings were given for each patient for the extent to which they expressed “liking,” “resonance” (the music being experienced as “harmonious” with the emotional state of the listener), and “openness” (acceptance of the music-evoked experience)., RESULTS: Analyses of the interviews revealed that the music had both “welcome” and “unwelcome” influences on patients’ subjective experiences. Welcome influences included the evocation of personally meaningful and therapeutically useful emotion and mental imagery, a sense of guidance, openness, and the promotion of calm and a sense of safety. Conversely, unwelcome influences included the evocation of unpleasant emotion and imagery, a sense of being misguided and resistance. Correlation analyses showed that patients’ experience of the music was associated with the occurrence of “mystical experiences” and “insightfulness.” Crucially, the nature of the music experience was significantly predictive of reductions in depression 1 week after psilocybin, whereas general drug intensity was not., CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates that music plays a central therapeutic function in psychedelic therapy.
Nielson, E. M., & Guss, J. (2018). The influence of therapists’ first-hand experience with psychedelics on psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy research and therapist training. Journal Of Psychedelic Studies
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1556/2054.2018.009
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“Clinical research on psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy is rapidly advancing in the USA, with two drugs, psilocybin and MDMA, progressing through a structure of FDA-approved trials on a trajectory toward Drug Enforcement Agency rescheduling for therapeutic use. Researcher’s and clinician’s personal use of psychedelics was cited as a potential confound in psychedelic research studies conducted in the 1950s and 1960s, a concern which contributed to the cessation of this research for some 20 years. Currently, there is no empirical research on personal use of psychedelics by current academic researchers and clinicians; its influence is undocumented, unknown, and undertheorized. This paper explores the history of personal use of psychedelics by clinicians and researchers, the potential impact of personal use on psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy and research, and the rationale for opening an academic discussion and program of research to investigate the role of personal use. We propose that there are factors unique to psychedelic-assisted therapy such that training for it cannot neatly fit into the framework of modern psychopharmacology training, nor be fully analogous to psychotherapy training in contemporary psychological and psychiatric settings. We argue that scientific exploration of the influence of therapists’ first-hand experience of psychedelics on psychedelic-assisted therapy outcomes is feasible, timely, and necessary for the future of clinical research.
Leonard, J. B., Anderson, B., & Klein-Schwartz, W. (2018). Does getting high hurt? Characterization of cases of LSD and psilocybin-containing mushroom exposures to national poison centers between 2000 and 2016. Journal Of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881118793086
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“Background:Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin are serotonergic hallucinogens that are used primarily for recreational abuse. Small studies evaluated the efficacy of LSD and psilocybin for several psychiatric conditions. There are limited safety or toxicity data for either of these substances, especially in large populations.Methods:This was a retrospective analysis of single-substance exposures of LSD or psilocybin-containing mushrooms (PcMs) reported to United States poison centers from 1 January 2000 to 31 December 2016. The study describes the most frequent toxicities, management sites, and medical outcomes.Results:A total of 5883 PcM and 3554 LSD exposures were included. Most patients were between 13 and 29 years of age (83.9% PcM, 88.9% LSD) and primarily male (77.9% PcM, 74.1% LSD). Most common clinical effects were hallucinations (45.8% PcM, 37.4% LSD), agitation (24.1% PcM, 42.4% LSD), and tachycardia (18.0% PcM, 38.6% LSD). Serious clinical effects were infrequent, but included hyper..
De Gregorio, D., Enns, J. P., Nuñez, N. A., Posa, L., & Gobbi, G. (2018). D-Lysergic acid diethylamide, psilocybin, and other classic hallucinogens: Mechanism of action and potential therapeutic applications in mood disorders. Progress In Brain Research
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2018.07.008
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“Depression and anxiety are psychiatric diagnoses commonly associated with low quality of life and low percentage of responsiveness by patients treated with currently available drugs. Thus, research into alternative compounds to treat these disorders is essential to guarantee a patient’s remission. The last decade has witnessed a revamped interest for the application of psychedelic medicine for the treatment of mental disorders due to anecdotal reports and clinical studies which show that low doses of D-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin may have antidepressant effects. LSD and psilocybin have demonstrated mood-modulating properties likely due to their capacity to modulate serotonergic (5-HT), dopaminergic (DA) and glutamatergic systems. LSD, belonging to the category of “classic halluginogens,” interacts with the 5-HT system through 5HT1A, and 5HT2Areceptors, with the DA system through D2receptors, and indirectly also the glutamatergic neurotransmission thought the recruitment of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. Randomized clinical studies have confirmed its antidepressant and anxiolytic effects in humans. Thus, in this chapter, we will review the pharmacology of psychedelic drugs, report the most striking clinical evidence which substantiate the therapeutic potentials of these fascinating compounds in mood disorders, and look into the horizon of where psychedelic medicine is heading.
Noorani, T., Garcia-Romeu, A., Swift, T. C., Griffiths, R. R., & Johnson, M. W. (2018). Psychedelic therapy for smoking cessation: Qualitative analysis of participant accounts. Journal Of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881118780612
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“Background:Recent pilot trials suggest feasibility and potential efficacy of psychedelic-facilitated addiction treatment interventions. Fifteen participants completed a psilocybin-facilitated smoking cessation pilot study between 2009 and 2015.Aims:The aims of this study were as follows: (1) to identify perceived mechanisms of change leading to smoking cessation in the pilot study; (2) to identify key themes in participant experiences and long-term outcomes to better understand the therapeutic process.Methods:Participants were invited to a retrospective follow-up interview an average of 30 months after initial psilocybin sessions. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 of the 15 participants. Data were analysed using thematic analysis.Results:Participants reported gaining vivid insights into self-identity and reasons for smoking from their psilocybin sessions. Experiences of interconnectedness, awe, and curiosity persisted beyond the duration of acute drug effects. Participants emphasised that ..
Malone, T. C., Mennenga, S. E., Guss, J., Podrebarac, S. K., Owens, L. T., Bossis, A. P., et al. (2018). Individual experiences in four cancer patients following psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy. Frontiers In Pharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00256
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“A growing body of evidence shows that existential and spiritual well-being in cancer patients is associated with better medical outcomes, improved quality of life, and serves as a buffer against depression, hopelessness, and desire for hastened death. Historical and recent research suggests a role for psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy in treating cancer-related anxiety and depression. A double-blind controlled trial was performed, where 29 patients with cancer-related anxiety and depression were randomly assigned to treatment with single-dose psilocybin (0.3 mg/kg) or niacin in conjunction with psychotherapy. Previously published results of this trial demonstrated that, in conjunction with psychotherapy, moderate-dose psilocybin produced rapid, robust, and enduring anxiolytic and anti-depressant effects. Here, we illustrate unique clinical courses described by four participants using quantitative measures of acute and persisting effects of psilocybin, anxiety, depression, quality of life, and spiritual well-being, as well as qualitative interviews, written narratives, and clinician notes. Although the content of each psilocybin-assisted experience was unique to each participant, several thematic similarities and differences across the various sessions stood out. These four participants’ personal narratives extended beyond the cancer diagnosis itself, frequently revolving around themes of self-compassion and love, acceptance of death, and memories of past trauma, though the specific details or narrative content differ substantially. The results presented here demonstrate the personalized nature of the subjective experiences elicited through treatment with psilocybin, particularly with respect to the spiritual and/or psychological needs of each patient.
Bayne, T., & Carter, O. (2018). Dimensions of consciousness and the psychedelic state. Neuroscience Of Consciousness
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1093/nc/niy008
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“It has often been suggested in the popular and academic literature that the psychedelic state qualifies as a higher state of consciousness relative to the state of normal waking awareness. This article subjects this proposal to critical scrutiny, focusing on the question of what it would mean for a state of consciousness to be ‘higher’. We begin by considering the contrast between conscious contents and conscious global states. We then review the changes in conscious global state associated with psychedelic drug use, focusing on the effects of two serotonergic hallucinogens: psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide. Limiting our review to findings obtained from lab-based experiments and reported in peer-reviewed journals, we prioritize the more common and reliably induced effects obtained through subjective questionnaires and psychophysical measures. The findings are grouped into three broad categories (sensory perception, cognitive function, and experiences of unity) and demonstrate that although certain aspects of consciousness are improved or enhanced in the psychedelic state, many of the functional capacities that are associated with consciousness are seriously compromised. Psychedelic-induced states of consciousness are indeed remarkable in many ways, but it is inappropriate to regard them as ‘higher’ states of consciousness. The fact that psychedelics affect different aspects of consciousness in fundamentally different ways provides evidence against the unidimensional (or ‘level-based’) view of consciousness, and instead provides strong support for a multidimensional conception of conscious states. The final section of the article considers the implications of this analysis for two prominent theories of consciousness: the Global Workspace Theory and Integrated Information Theory.
Roseman, L., Demetriou, L., Wall, M. B., Nutt, D. J., & Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2018). Increased amygdala responses to emotional faces after psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression. Neuropharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.12.041
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“Recent evidence indicates that psilocybin with psychological support may be effective for treating depression. Some studies have found that patients with depression show heightened amygdala responses to fearful faces and there is reliable evidence that treatment with SSRIs attenuates amygdala responses (Ma, 2015). We hypothesised that amygdala responses to emotional faces would be altered post-treatment with psilocybin. In this open-label study, 20 individuals diagnosed with moderate to severe, treatment-resistant depression, underwent two separate dosing sessions with psilocybin. Psychological support was provided before, during and after these sessions and 19 completed fMRI scans one week prior to the first session and one day after the second and last. Neutral, fearful and happy faces were presented in the scanner and analyses focused on the amygdala. Group results revealed rapid and enduring improvements in depressive symptoms post psilocybin. Increased responses to fearful and happy faces were observed in the right amygdala post-treatment, and right amygdala increases to fearful versus neutral faces were predictive of clinical improvements at 1-week. Psilocybin with psychological support was associated with increased amygdala responses to emotional stimuli, an opposite effect to previous findings with SSRIs. This suggests fundamental differences in these treatments’ therapeutic actions, with SSRIs mitigating negative emotions and psilocybin allowing patients to confront and work through them. Based on the present results, we propose that psilocybin with psychological support is a treatment approach that potentially revives emotional responsiveness in depression, enabling patients to reconnect with their emotions. Trial registration: ISRCTN, number ISRCTN14426797.
Solano, J., Anabalón, L., Figueroa, S., Lizama, C., Reyes, L. C., & Gangitano, D. (2018). Psychedelic fungus (Psilocybe sp.) authentication in a case of illegal drug traffic: sporological, molecular analysis and identification of the psychoactive substance. Science And Justice
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2018.08.005
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“In nature, there are >200 species of fungi with hallucinogenic properties. These fungi are classified as Psilocybe, Gymnopilus, and Panaeolus which contain active principles with hallucinogenic properties such as ibotenic acid, psilocybin, psilocin, or baeocystin. In Chile, fungi seizures are mainly of mature specimens or spores. However, clandestine laboratories have been found that process fungus samples at the mycelium stage. In this transient stage of growth (mycelium), traditional taxonomic identification is not feasible, making it necessary to develop a new method of study. Currently, DNA analysis is the only reliable method that can be used as an identification tool for the purposes of supporting evidence, due to the high variability of DNA between species. One way to identify the species of a distinctive DNA fragment is to study PCR products analyzed by real time PCR and sequencing. One of the most popular sequencing methods of forensic interest at the generic and intra-generic levels in plants is internal transcribed spacer (ITS). With real time PCR it is possible to distinguish PCR products by differential analysis of their melting temperature (Tm) curves. This paper describes morphological, chemical, and genetic analysis of mycelia of psychedelic fungi collected from a clandestine laboratory. The fungus species were identified using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), mass spectrometry, HRM analysis, and ITS sequencing. The sporological studies showed a generally smooth surface and oval shape, with maximum length 10.1 μm and width 6.4 μm. The alkaloid Psilocyn was identified by mass spectrometry, while HRM analysis and ITS sequencing identified the species as Psilocybe cubensis. A genetic match was confirmed between the HRM curves obtained from the mycelia (evidence) and biological tissue extracted from the fruiting bodies. Mycelia recovered from the evidence and fruiting bodies (control) were genetically indistinguishable.
Nichols, D. E. (2018). Dark Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD). Acs Chemical Neuroscience
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00043
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“Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is one of the most potent psychoactive agents known, producing dramatic alterations of consciousness after submilligram (≥20 μg) oral doses. Following the accidental discovery of its potent psychoactive effects in 1943, it was supplied by Sandoz Laboratories as an experimental drug that might be useful as an adjunct for psychotherapy, or to give psychiatrists insight into the mental processes in their patients. The finding of serotonin in the mammalian brain in 1953, and its structural resemblance to LSD, quickly led to ideas that serotonin in the brain might be involved in mental disorders, initiating rapid research interest in the neurochemistry of serotonin. LSD proved to be physiologically very safe and nonaddictive, with a very low incidence of adverse events when used in controlled experiments. Widely hailed by psychiatry as a breakthrough in the 1950s and early 1960s, clinical research with LSD ended by about 1970, when it was formally placed into Schedule 1 of the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 following its growing popularity as a recreational drug. Within the past 5 years, clinical research with LSD has begun in Europe, but there has been none in the United States. LSD is proving to be a powerful tool to help understand brain dynamics when combined with modern brain imaging methods. It remains to be seen whether therapeutic value for LSD can be confirmed in controlled clinical trials, but promising results have been obtained in small pilot trials of depression, anxiety, and addictions using psilocybin, a related psychedelic molecule. KEYWORDS:
James, E., Robertshaw, T. L., Westwell, A. D., & Smith, A. P. (2018). Pharmacies as potential providers of harm reduction services: A preliminary online survey. Drug Science, Policy And Law
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/2050324518767441
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“BackgroundRecreational drug use is a major cause of disease, injury, physical and mental impairment and death in developed countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States. Alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and psilocybe mushrooms are recreational drugs with capacity to cause harm. Cannabis, MDMA and psilocybin have reported therapeutic applications.ObjectivesThe primary purpose of this study was to determine which of the three types of vendor (pharmacy, shop and the black market) are perceived to be the most suitable for selling the substances discussed according to a general population sample.MethodsA sample of 105 UK nationals was selected for the survey. Participants were presented information regarding reported relative dangers of alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, MDMA and psilocybin and potential therapeutic applications. Participants were then asked to review harm reduction strategies.ResultsIt was found that participants concluded that pharmacists with availa..
Carrillo, F., Sigman, M., Fernández Slezak, D., Ashton, P., Fitzgerald, L., Stroud, J., et al. (2018). Natural speech algorithm applied to baseline interview data can predict which patients will respond to psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression. Journal Of Affective Disorders
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2018.01.006
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“Background: Natural speech analytics has seen some improvements over recent years, and this has opened a window for objective and quantitative diagnosis in psychiatry. Here, we used a machine learning algorithm applied to natural speech to ask whether language properties measured before psilocybin for treatment-resistant can predict for which patients it will be effective and for which it will not. Methods: A baseline autobiographical memory interview was conducted and transcribed. Patients with treatment-resistant depression received 2 doses of psilocybin, 10 mg and 25 mg, 7 days apart. Psychological support was provided before, during and after all dosing sessions. Quantitative speech measures were applied to the interview data from 17 patients and 18 untreated age-matched healthy control subjects. A machine learning algorithm was used to classify between controls and patients and predict treatment response. Results: Speech analytics and machine learning successfully differentiated depressed patients from healthy controls and identified treatment responders from non-responders with a significant level of 85% of accuracy (75% precision). Conclusions: Automatic natural language analysis was used to predict effective response to treatment with psilocybin, suggesting that these tools offer a highly cost-effective facility for screening individuals for treatment suitability and sensitivity. Limitations: The sample size was small and replication is required to strengthen inferences on these results.
Barrett, F. S., Carbonaro, T. M., Hurwitz, E., Johnson, M. W., & Griffiths, R. R. (2018). Double-blind comparison of the two hallucinogens psilocybin and dextromethorphan: effects on cognition. Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-4981-x
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“Rationale Although psilocybin and dextromethorphan (DXM) are hallucinogens, they have different receptor mechanisms of action and have not been directly compared. Objective This study compared subjective, behavioral, and physiological effects of psilocybin and dextromethorphan under conditions that minimized expectancy effects. Methods Single, acute oral doses of psilocybin (10, 20, 30 mg/70 kg), DXM (400 mg/70 kg), and placebo were administered under double-blind conditions to 20 healthy participants with histories of hallucinogen use. Instructions to participants and staff minimized expectancy effects. Various subjective, behavioral, and physiological effects were assessed after drug administration. Results High doses of both drugs produced similar increases in participant ratings of peak overall drug effect strength, with similar times to maximal effect and time-course. Psilocybin produced orderly dose-related increases on most participant-rated subjective measures previously shown sensitive to hallucinogens. DXM produced increases on most of these same measures. However, the high dose of psilocybin produced significantly greater and more diverse visual effects than DXM including greater movement and more frequent, brighter, distinctive, and complex (including textured and kaleidoscopic) images and visions. Compared to DXM, psilocybin also produced significantly greater mystical-type and psychologically insightful experiences and greater absorption in music. In contrast, DXM produced larger effects than psilocybin on measures of disembodiment, nausea/emesis, and light-headedness. Both drugs increased systolic blood pressure, heart rate, and pupil dilation and decreased psychomotor performance and balance. Conclusions Psilocybin and DXM produced similar profiles of subjective experiences, with psilocybin producing relatively greater visual, mystical-type, insightful, and musical experiences, and DXM producing greater disembodiment.
Boyce, G., Gluck-Thaler, E., Slot, J. C., Stajich, J. E., Davis, W. J., James, T. Y., et al. (2018). Discovery of psychoactive plant and mushroom alkaloids in ancient fungal cicada pathogens. Biorxiv
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1101/375105
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“Entomopathogenic fungi routinely kill their hosts before releasing infectious conidia, but select species keep their hosts alive while sporulating to enhance spore dispersal. Recent expression and metabolomics studies involving host-killing entomopathogens have helped unravel infection processes and host responses, yet the mechanisms underlying active host transmission in insects with Entomophthoralean fungal infections are completely unexplored. Here we report the discovery, through global and targeted metabolomics supported by metagenomics and proteomics, of the plant amphetamine, cathinone, in Massospora cicadina -infected periodical cicadas, and the mushroom tryptamine, psilocybin, in M. platypediae – and M. levispora -infected annual cicadas. The neurogenic activities of these alkaloids provide a hypothetical framework for a chemically induced extended phenotype of Massospora that alters cicada behavior by increasing endurance and suppressing feeding prior to death.
Griffiths, R. R., Johnson, M. W., Richards, W. A., Richards, B. D., Jesse, R., MacLean, K. A., et al. (2018). Psilocybin-occasioned mystical-type experience in combination with meditation and other spiritual practices produces enduring positive changes in psychological functioning and in trait measures of prosocial attitudes and behaviors. Journal Of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881117731279
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“In 2 studies, we investigated victim attributions (Study 1) and outcomes (Study 2) for workplace aggression and sexual harassment. Drawing on social categorization theory, we argue that victims of workplace aggression and sexual harassment may make different attributions about their mistreatment. In Study 1, we investigated victim attributions in an experimental study. We hypothesized that victims of sexual harassment are more likely than victims of workplace aggression to depersonalize their mistreatment and attribute blame to the perpetrator or the perpetrator’s attitudes toward their gender. In contrast, victims of workplace aggression are more likely than victims of sexual harassment to personalize the mistreatment and make internal attributions. Results supported our hypotheses. On the basis of differential attributions for these 2 types of mistreatment, we argue that victims of workplace aggression may experience stronger adverse outcomes than victims of sexual harassment. In Study 2, we compared meta-analytically the attitudinal, behavioral, and health outcomes of workplace aggression and sexual harassment. Negative outcomes of workplace aggression were stronger in magnitude than those of sexual harassment for 6 of the 8 outcome variables. Implications and future directions are discussed.
Hoefgen, S., Lin, J., Fricke, J., Stroe, M. C., Mattern, D. J., Kufs, J. E., et al. (2018). Facile assembly and fluorescence-based screening method for heterologous expression of biosynthetic pathways in fungi. Metabolic Engineering
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2018.05.014
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“Heterologous expression of multi-gene biosynthetic pathways in eukaryotic hosts is limited by highly regulated individual monocistrons. Dissimilar to prokaryotes, each eukaryotic gene is strictly controlled by its own regulatory elements, such as promoter and terminator. Consequently, parallel transcription can occur only when a group of genes is synchronously activated. A strategy to circumvent this limitation is the concerted expression of multiple genes as a polycistron. By exploiting the “stop-carry on” mechanism of picornaviruses, we have designed a sophisticated, yet easy-to-assemble vector system to heterologously express multiple genes under the control of a single promoter. For facile selection of correctly transformed colonies by basic fluorescence microscopy, our vector includes a split gene for a fluorescent reporter protein. This method was successfully applied to produce the psychotropic mushroom alkaloid psilocybin in high yields by heterologous expression of the entire biosynthetic gene cluster in the mould Aspergillus nidulans.
Johnson, M. W., Griffiths, R. R., Hendricks, P. S., & Henningfield, J. E. (2018). The abuse potential of medical psilocybin according to the 8 factors of the Controlled Substances Act. Neuropharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.05.012
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“This review assesses the abuse potential of medically-administered psilocybin, following the structure of the 8 factors of the US Controlled Substances Act (CSA). Research suggests the potential safety and efficacy of psilocybin in treating cancer-related psychiatric distress and substance use disorders, setting the occasion for this review. A more extensive assessment of abuse potential according to an 8-factor analysis would eventually be required to guide appropriate schedule placement. Psilocybin, like other 5-HT2A agonist classic psychedelics, has limited reinforcing effects, supporting marginal, transient non-human self-administration. Nonetheless, mushrooms with variable psilocybin content are used illicitly, with a few lifetime use occasions being normative among users. Potential harms include dangerous behavior in unprepared, unsupervised users, and exacerbation of mental illness in those with or predisposed to psychotic disorders. However, scope of use and associated harms are low compared to prototypical abused drugs, and the medical model addresses these concerns with dose control, patient screening, preparation and follow-up, and session supervision in a medical facility. CONCLUSIONS (1) psilocybin has an abuse potential appropriate for CSA scheduling if approved as medicine; (2) psilocybin can provide therapeutic benefits that may support the development of an approvable New Drug Application (NDA) but further studies are required which this review describes; (3) adverse effects of medical psilocybin are manageable when administered according to risk management approaches; and (4) although further study is required, this review suggests that placement in Schedule IV may be appropriate if a psilocybin-containing medicine is approved.
Barnby, J. M., & Mehta, M. A. (2018). Psilocybin and mental health-don’t lose control. Frontiers in Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00293
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Bogenschutz, M. P., & Ross, S. (2018). Therapeutic applications of classic hallucinogens. In Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/7854_2016_464
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“This chapter reviews what is known about the therapeutic uses of the serotonergic or classic hallucinogens, i.e., psychoactive drugs such as LSD and psilocybin that exert their effects primarily through agonist activity at serotonin 2A (5HT2A) receptors. Following a review of the history of human use and scientific study of these drugs, the data from clinical research are summarized, including extensive work on the use of classic hallucinogens in the treatment of alcoholism and other addictions, studies of the use of LSD and psilocybin to relieve distress concerning death, particularly in patients with advanced or terminal cancer, and more limited data concerning the use of classic hallucinogens to treat mood and anxiety disorders. A survey of possible mechanisms of clinically relevant effects is provided. The well-established safety of classic hallucinogens is reviewed. To provide a clinical perspective, case summaries are provided of two individuals who received treatment in recent controlled trials of psilocybin: one being treated for alcoholism, the other suffering from anxiety and depression related to fear of death due to a cancer diagnosis. Although promising early phase research conducted from the 1950s through the early 1970s was discontinued before firm conclusions could be reached concerning the efficacy of any of the classic hallucinogens for any clinical condition, the research that was conducted in that era strongly suggests that classic hallucinogens have clinically relevant effects, particularly in the case of LSD treatment of alcoholism. In the past decade, clinical trials have resumed investigating the effects of classic hallucinogens in the treatment of existential distress in the face of cancer, and in the treatment of addictions including alcoholism and nicotine addiction. The studies that have been completed to date are not sufficient to establish efficacy, but the outcomes have been very encouraging, and larger trials, up to and including phase 3, are now underway or being planned. Although research has elucidated many of the acute neurobiological and psychological effects of classic hallucinogens on humans, animals, and in vitro systems, the mechanisms of clinically relevant persisting effects remain poorly understood.
Pietsch, J., Scheffel, K., Acquarone, D., Koch, I., Deters, M., & Hermanns-Clausen, M. (2018). Trends in Abuse of Biogenic Drugs in Parts of Germany 2007-2013. Gesundheitswesen
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1055/s-0042-108644
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“Aim of the study: Based on an abundance of information on the internet, psychotropic plants and mushrooms are of increasing relevance as legal and cheap alternatives to other illicit drugs. Due to the lack of a German database, the abuse of selected biogenic drugs using reported exposures to 3 German Poison Information Centres (PICs) was examined. Methods: Information on abuse of biogenic drugs was collected from the German PICs in Berlin, Erfurt and Fribourg (2007-2013). Results: 602 drug abuses were reported to the selected PICs. 52% reported consumption of tropane alkaloid-containing plants (Angel’s trumpet, Thorn apple, Belladonna), 25% of psilocybin-containing mushrooms and 10% of nutmeg. Angel’s trumpet was identified as the most abused plant. Consumers of tropane alkaloid-containing plants were mainly adolescents, whereas the majority of the abusers of psilocybin-containing mushrooms and nutmeg were rather young grown-ups and school children, respectively. A preponderance of moderate and severe effects (55%) could be noticed for exposures to tropane alkaloid-containing plants. More than 90% of suspected cases of tropane alkaloid-containing as well as psilocybin-containing plants abuse resulted in the treatment recommendation ‘surveillance in hospital’. Mydriasis, hallucinations, tachycardia and agitation were the main symptoms after the abuse of biogenic drugs. Conclusions: The data from the PICs suggest abuse of biogenic drugs in parts of Germany. A decreasing trend is observed, probably caused by the competition with new synthetic designer drugs. The results underline the dominance of Angel’s trumpet in the abuse of biogenic drugs and emphasize the importance of easy accessibility for the abuse of biogenic drugs. Unexpectedly, the number of nutmeg abuse cases increased during the investigated period
Rucker, J. J. H., Iliff, J., & Nutt, D. J. (2018). Psychiatry & the psychedelic drugs. Past, present & future. Neuropharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.12.040
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“The classical psychedelic drugs, including psilocybin, lysergic acid diethylamide and mescaline, were used extensively in psychiatry before they were placed in Schedule I of the UN Convention on Drugs in 1967. Experimentation and clinical trials undertaken prior to legal sanction suggest that they are not helpful for those with established psychotic disorders and should be avoided in those liable to develop them. However, those with so-called ‘psychoneurotic’ disorders sometimes benefited considerably from their tendency to ‘loosen’ otherwise fixed, maladaptive patterns of cognition and behaviour, particularly when given in a supportive, therapeutic setting. Pre-prohibition studies in this area were sub-optimal, although a recent systematic review in unipolar mood disorder and a meta-analysis in alcoholism have both suggested efficacy. The incidence of serious adverse events appears to be low. Since 2006, there have been several pilot trials and randomised controlled trials using psychedelics (mostly psilocybin) in various non-psychotic psychiatric disorders. These have provided encouraging results that provide initial evidence of safety and efficacy, however the regulatory and legal hurdles to licensing psychedelics as medicines are formidable. This paper summarises clinical trials using psychedelics pre and post prohibition, discusses the methodological challenges of performing good quality trials in this area and considers a strategic approach to the legal and regulatory barriers to licensing psychedelics as a treatment in mainstream psychiatry.
Mahmoudi, E.; Faizi, M.; Hajiaghaee, R.; Razmi, A. (2018). Alteration of Depressive-like Behaviors by Psilocybe cubensis Alkaloid Extract in Mice: the Role of Glutamate Pathway. Research Journal Of Pharmacognosy
Plain numerical DOI: 10.22127/RJP.2018.58486
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“Background and objectives: Considering the increasing prevalence of depression, many studies are launched to investigate new antidepressant treatments. The present research has shown how psilocybin as an active compound of Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer extract (PCE) can change the parameters related to depression and anxiety in animal models. Both serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine: 5-HT) and glutamate modulate depressive-like behaviors and, therefore, we examined the possible interaction of psilocybin as 5-HT 1 agonist with glutamate receptor N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA). Methods: Psilocybe cubensis extract of this mushroom was prepared by ethyl acetate. NMRI mice involved in all experiments and were treated with the vehicle, extract, or standard drug intraperitoneally. Open field (OFT), forced swimming (FST) and tail suspension tests (TST) were applied to measure the intended parameters. OFT was performed to verify the applied doses for measuring the following antidepressant activity. Results: PCE at the doses of 100 mg/kg significantly changed the locomotion, time spent in center and velocity of the animals in OFT. While treatment of the animals with PCE 10 and 40 mg/kg or ketamine 1 mg/kg did not alter the locomotor activity, co-administration of these subeffective amounts significantly reduced the immobility time in both FST and TST. Conclusion: These effects may indicate possible implication of psilocybin with NMDA receptor which consequently produces the antidepressant effects.
Dorsen, C., Palamar, J., & Shedlin, M. G. (2018). Ceremonial ‘Plant Medicine’ use and its relationship to recreational drug use: an exploratory study. Addiction Research And Theory
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/16066359.2018.1455187
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“© 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group Background: The ceremonial use of psychoactive/hallucinogenic plant based drugs, such as ayahuasca, psilocybin and others, is a growing trend in the United States (US) and globally. To date, there has been little research documenting how many people are using psychoactive substances in this context, who the users are, what benefits/risks exist in the use of these drugs and the relationship between ceremonial drug use and recreational drug use. In this paper we describe a cohort of plant medicine facilitators in the US and explore how they differentiate plant medicine use from recreational drug use. Methods: Using modified ethnography, individual interviews were conducted in 2016 with 15 participants who are currently facilitating plant medicine ceremonies in the US. Descriptive content analysis was performed to discover themes and to inform a larger mixed-method study. Results: Ceremonial drug use was seen by participants as a natural healing and treatment modality used in the context of community and ritual. Three main themes were identified relating to participants’ differentiation between ceremonial plant medicine use and recreational drug use: (1) participants see a clear delineation between plant medicine use and recreational drug use; (2) plant medicine is seen as a potential treatment for addiction, but concerns exist regarding potential interference with recovery; and (3) plant medicine use may influence recreational use. Conclusions: More research is needed on who is using plant medicine, motivators for use, perceived and real risks and benefits of plant medicine use and harm reduction techniques regarding safe ingestion.
Iorfida, A., Verre, S., Candamano, S., & Ombres, L. (2018). Tensile and direct shear responses of basalt-fibre reinforced mortar based materials. Rilem Bookseries
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/978-94-024-1194-2_63
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“A procedure based on ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry has been developed for the determination of mescaline, N,N-dimethyltryptamine, psilocin, psilocybin, salvinorin A in hair of consumers of psychedelic vegetal material such peyote or trichocereus cacti, psilocybe mushrooms, Salvia divinorum or psychedelic beverage ayahuasca. After hair washing with methyl alcohol and diethyl ether and subsequent addition of mescaline-d9 and 3,4-methylenedioxypropylamphetamine as internal standards, hair samples were treated with 250mul VMA-T M3 reagent for 1h at 100 degrees C. After cooling, 100mul M3 extract were diluted with 400mul water and a volume of 10mul was injected into chromatographic system. Chromatographic separation was achieved at ambient temperature using a reverse-phase column and a linear gradient elution with two solvents: 0.3% formic acid in acetonitrile and 5mM ammonium formate pH 3. The mass spectrometer was operated in positive ion mode, using multiple reaction monitoring via positive electrospray ionization. The method was linear from the limit of quantification (0.03-0.05ng/mg depending on analyte under investigation) to 10ng/mg hair, with an intra- and inter-assay imprecision and inaccuracy always less than 15% and an analytical recovery between 79.6% and 97.4%, depending on the considered analyte. Using the validated method, mescaline was found in concentration range of 0.08-0.13ng/mg in hair of peyote smokers, 3.2ng salvinorin A per mg hair were determined in hair from a S. divinorum smoker, 5.6ng N,N-dimethyltryptamine per mg hair from an ayahuasca user and finally 0.8ng psilocybin per ng hair of a psilocybe consumer.
Pogorelov, B. A., & Pudovkina, M. A. (2018). On groups containing the additive group of the residue ring or the vector space. Discrete Mathematics And Applications
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1515/dma-2018-0021
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“A comparison of personality factors on scales of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent (MMPI-A) was conducted with a sample of adolescents referred to a residential substance abuse treatment program. A total of sixty adolescents identified with hallucinogen (n = 20), cannabis (n = 20), or methamphetamine (n = 20) as their drug of choice participated in the study. All adolescents met criteria for hallucinogen, cannabis, or methamphetamine dependence in accordance with their assigned groups. Adolescents were matched by age and gender. Primary analysis revealed significant differences between hallucinogen and cannabis groups on the Hypochondriasis (Hs), Schizophrenia (Sc), and Adolescent-Bizarre Mentation (A-biz) scales. Post hoc analyses on remaining Clinical, Content, and Validity scales revealed significant differences between ‘hallucinogen and cannabis groups on the Infrequency (F) scale. Scores on all scales of the methamphetamine group were not significantly different from scale scores on the cannabis or hallucinogen groups. Although sample sizes were small, this is one of the first studies to utilize personality assessment in order to differentiate personality characteristics of adolescents who report hallucinogen (i.e., psilocybin mushroom), cannabis, or methamphetamine as drug of choice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved)
Linszen, M., Kleijer, H., & Sommer, I. (2018). Visual hallucinations and lifetime use of hallucinogen perception persisting disorder associated recreational drugs: results from a large online survey. European Neuropsychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2017.12.114
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“
Introduction
Hallucinogen perception persisting disorder (HPPD) can be defined as the re-experience of altered visual perceptions after use of psychedelic drugs [1,2]. Despite estimated high percentages of recreational use of psychedelic drugs, research data on HPPD are scarcely available [1,2]. Considering the recent emergence of studies on psychedelic drugs as a treatment option for various psychiatric disorders, proper assessment of potentially harmful side effects, such as HPPD, is necessary [3]. This study aims to investigate the association between lifetime use of HPPD-associated drugs and the presence and burden of visual hallucinations in a large general population sample.
Methods
We used data from a large online survey on hallucinations in the general Dutch population, https://zieikspoken.nl, collected between September 26th, 2016 and May 23rd, 2017. All participants (n=10.289) were aged 14 or over. We assessed lifetime use of 11 commonly used recreational drugs in the Netherlands, out of which LSD, psilocybin, 2-CB and MDMA were considered HPPD-associated based on previous reports [1-4]. Visual hallucinations were assessed using the Questionnaire for Psychotic Experiences (QPE). Presence of visual hallucinations was categorized as follows: never experienced, ever experienced, experienced in past month, experienced in past week. Associations between lifetime use of HPPD-associated drugs and presence and phenomenology of visual hallucinations were calculated using Pearson’s chi-square tests in SPSS.
Results
A total of 2.175 subjects (21.1% of all participants) indicated having used HPPD-associated drugs at least once in their lifetime. In subjects who had never experienced visual hallucinations, the percentage of lifetime HPPD-associated drug use (18.8%) was significantly lower than in the groups who had experienced visual hallucinations in their lifetime but not recently (23.0%), in the past month (25.2%) or the past week (24.9%). Nevertheless, lifetime use of HPPD-associated drugs did not differ between the groups of subjects with visual hallucinations (ever/past month/past week). Within the group of subjects with visual hallucinations in the past week or month, lifetime HPPD-associated drug users did not differ from non-users in terms of experiencing a significant burden from their visual hallucinations (25.2% vs. 24.1%, respectively; OR 0.9 (95%-CI 0.7-1.2)) or having visual hallucinations with a significant impact on their daily functioning (25.1% vs 23.0%; OR 0.9 (95%CI 0.6 -1.4)).
Discussion
Our results indicate that lifetime exposure to HPPD-associated drugs is associated with a slight but significant increase in presence of visual hallucinations. However, the experienced burden of current visual hallucinations and their impact on daily functioning does not differ between the exposed and unexposed group.
Our study is limited to cross-sectional data not specifically focused on HPPD-like perceptual disturbances. Despite this, our results are in line with previous studies, in which the presence of chronic, burdensome perceptual disturbances after psychedelic drug use is considered a rare phenomenon, whose occurrence relies on an overall vulnerability based on the combined presence of several risk factors, rather than on the lifetime exposure to HPPD-associated drugs alone [1-4]. With regard to future studies on psychedelic drugs, we still recommend to be careful by thoroughly measuring HPPD-like symptoms over time, and studying potentially contributive factors.
Lord, L. -D., Expert, P., Atasoy, S., Roseman, L., Rapuano, K., Lambiotte, R., et al. (2018). Altered trajectories in the dynamical repertoire of functional network states under psilocybin. Biorxiv
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1101/376491
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“Brain activity can be understood as the exploration of a dynamical landscape of activity configurations over both space and time. This dynamical landscape may be defined in terms of spontaneous transitions within a repertoire of discrete metastable states of functional connectivity (FC), which underlie different mental processes. However, it remains unclear how the brain’s dynamical landscape might be changed in altered states of consciousness, such as the psychedelic state. The present study investigated changes in the brain’s dynamical repertoire in an fMRI dataset of healthy participants intravenously injected with the psychedelic compound psilocybin, which is found in “magic mushrooms”. We employed a data-driven approach to study brain dynamics in the psychedelic state, which focuses on the dominant FC pattern captured by the leading eigenvector of dynamic FC matrices, and enables the identification of recurrent FC patterns (“FC-states”), and their transition profiles over time. We found that a FC state closely corresponding to the fronto-parietal control system was strongly destabilized in the psychedelic state, while transitions toward a globally synchronized FC state were enhanced. These differences between brain state trajectories in normal waking consciousness and the psychedelic state suggest that the latter biases a global mode of functional integration at the expense of locally segregated activity in specific networks. These results provide a mechanistic perspective on subjective quality of the psychedelic experience, and further raise the possibility that mapping the brain’s dynamical landscape may help guide pharmacological interventions in neuropsychiatric disorders.
López-Giménez, J. F., & González-Maeso, J. (2018). Hallucinogens and serotonin 5-HT2Areceptor-mediated signaling pathways. In Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/7854_2017_478
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“The neuropsychological effects of naturally occurring psychoactive chemicals have been recognized for millennia. Hallucinogens, which include naturally occurring chemicals such as mescaline and psilocybin, as well as synthetic compounds, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), induce profound alterations of human consciousness, emotion, and cognition. The discovery of the hallucinogenic effects of LSD and the observations that LSD and the endogenous ligand serotonin share chemical and pharmacological profiles led to the suggestion that biogenic amines like serotonin were involved in the psychosis of mental disorders such as schizophrenia. Although they bind other G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) subtypes, studies indicate that several effects of hallucinogens involve agonist activity at the serotonin 5-HT2Areceptor. In this chapter, we review recent advances in understanding hallucinogen drug action through characterization of structure, neuroanatomical location, and function of the 5-HT2Areceptor.
Ross, S. (2018). Therapeutic use of classic psychedelics to treat cancer-related psychiatric distress. International Review Of Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/09540261.2018.1482261
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“AbstractCancer is highly prevalent and one of the leading causes of global morbidity and mortality. Psychological and existential suffering is common in cancer patients, associated with poor psychiatric and medical outcomes. Promising early-phase clinical research (1960s to early 1970s) suggested a therapeutic signal for serotoninergic psychedelics (e.g. psilocybin, LSD) in treating cancer-related psychiatric distress. After several decades of quiescence, research on psychedelic-assisted therapy to treat psychiatric disorders in cancer patients has resumed within the last 2 decades in the US and Europe. This review article is based on a systematic search of clinical trials from 1960–2018 researching the therapeutic use of psychedelic treatment in patients with serious or terminal illnesses and related psychiatric illness. The search found 10 eligible clinical trials, with a total of 445 participants, with the vast majority of the patients having advanced or terminal cancer diagnoses. Six open label trials..
Nicholas, C. R., Henriquez, K. M., Gassman, M. C., Cooper, K. M., Muller, D., Hetzel, S., et al. (2018). High dose psilocybin is associated with positive subjective effects in healthy volunteers. Journal Of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881118780713
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“AIM The aim of the current study was to investigate the relationship between escalating higher doses of psilocybin and the potential psilocybin occasioned positive subjective effects. METHODS Healthy participants ( n=12) were given three escalating doses of oral psilocybin (0.3 mg/kg; 0.45 mg/kg; 0.6 mg/kg) or (18.8-36.6 mg; 27.1-54.0 mg; 36.3-59.2 mg) a minimum of four weeks apart in a supervised setting. Blood and urine samples, vital signs, and electrocardiograms were obtained. Subjective effects were assessed using the Mystical Experience Questionnaire and Persisting Effects Questionnaire. RESULTS There was a significant linear dose-related response in Mystical Experience Questionnaire total score and the transcendence of time and space subscale, but not in the rate of a complete mystical experience. There was also a significant difference between dose 3 compared to dose 1 on the transcendence of time and space subscale, while no dose-related differences were found for Mystical Experience Questionnaire total scores or rate of a mystical experience. Persisting Effects Questionnaire positive composite scores 30 days after completion of the last dose were significantly higher than negative composite scores. Persisting Effects Questionnaire results revealed a moderate increase in sense of well-being or life satisfaction on average that was associated with the maximum Mystical Experience Questionnaire total score. Pharmacokinetic measures were associated with dose but not with Mystical Experience Questionnaire total scores or rate of a mystical experience. CONCLUSIONS High doses of psilocybin elicited subjective effects at least as strong as the lower doses and resulted in positive persisting subjective effects 30 days after, indicating that a complete mystical experience was not a prerequisite for positive outcomes.
Penna, A., Konstantatos, A. H., Cranwell, W., Paul, E., & Bruscino-Raiola, F. R. (2018). Incidence and associations of painful neuroma in a contemporary cohort of lower-limb amputees. Anz Journal Of Surgery
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/ans.14293
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“This study sought to assess the tolerability of intravenously administered psilocybin in healthy, hallucinogen-experienced volunteers in a mock-magnetic resonance imaging environment as a preliminary stage to a controlled investigation using functional magnetic resonance imaging to explore the effects of psilocybin on cerebral blood flow and activity. The present pilot study demonstrated that up to 2 mg of psilocybin delivered as a slow intravenous injection produces short-lived but typical drug effects that are psychologically and physiologically well tolerated. With appropriate care, this study supports the viability of functional magnetic resonance imaging work with psilocybin.
Savva, A., Stylianou, V., Kyriacou, K., & Domenach, F. (2018). Recognizing student facial expressions: A web application. In IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference, EDUCON
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1109/EDUCON.2018.8363404
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“Several lines of evidence suggest that classic (5HT2A agonist) hallucinogens have clinically relevant effects in alcohol and drug addiction. Although recent studies have investigated the effects of psilocybin in various populations, there have been no studies on the efficacy of psilocybin for alcohol dependence. We conducted a single-group proof-of-concept study to quantify acute effects of psilocybin in alcohol-dependent participants and to provide preliminary outcome and safety data. Ten volunteers with DSM-IV alcohol dependence received orally administered psilocybin in one or two supervised sessions in addition to Motivational Enhancement Therapy and therapy sessions devoted to preparation for and debriefing from the psilocybin sessions. Participants’ responses to psilocybin were qualitatively similar to those described in other populations. Abstinence did not increase significantly in the first 4 weeks of treatment (when participants had not yet received psilocybin), but increased significantly following psilocybin administration (p < 0.05). Gains were largely maintained at follow-up to 36 weeks. The intensity of effects in the first psilocybin session (at week 4) strongly predicted change in drinking during weeks 5–8 (r = 0.76 to r = 0.89) and also predicted decreases in craving and increases in abstinence self-efficacy during week 5. There were no significant treatment-related adverse events. These preliminary findings provide a strong rationale for controlled trials with larger samples to investigate efficacy and mechanisms.\nTRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT02061293
Witkin, J. M., Knutson, D. E., Rodriguez, G. J., & Shi, S. (2018). Rapid-Acting Antidepressants. Current Pharmaceutical Design
Plain numerical DOI: 10.2174/1381612824666180730104707
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“BACKGROUND: Conventional antidepressants are thought to produce their impact on clinical symptoms by increasing the central availability of biogenic amine neurotransmitters (the monoamine hypothesis of depression). These drugs continue to be the primary medicines used in major depressive disorder. Although they have biological effects after acute dosing, full antidepressant response generally takes weeks of daily administration. Lack of rapid onset is a large limitation in antidepressant therapy (e.g., suicide, lack of medication compliance, difficulty switching medications). METHODS: The present review of the literature discusses the preclinical and clinical findings on compounds that can produce immediate symptom relief. RESULTS: These compounds include ketamine, scopolamine, and mechanistically-related drugs. Newer additions to the list of potential rapid-acting agents include antagonists of metabotropic (mGlu) 2/3 receptors, negative allosteric modulators of α5-containing GABAA receptors, and psychedelic compounds. An additional benefit of these compounds is that they have demonstrated large effect sizes and, importantly, demonstrated efficacy in patient’s refractory to other treatments. A drawback of some of these compounds, to date, is finding ways to expand the duration of clinical efficacy. In addition, for some compounds, the side-effect profile requires management. A primary mechanism by which rapid effects might be produced is through the amplification of excitatory neurotransmission through activation of AMPA receptors. The extracellular efflux of glutamate induced by these drugs has been documented and provides the hypothesized triggering mechanism for AMPA receptor amplification. CONCLUSION: The preclinical and clinical literature strongly suggests that rapid-acting antidepressants are the current focus of antidepressant drug discovery. Promising clinical findings exist for several compounds including ketamine and other NMDA receptor antagonists, scopolamine, and psilocybin. Two compounds are in late stage clinical development: GLYX-13 (Rapastinel) and eskekamine.
Reynolds, H. T., Vijayakumar, V., Gluck-Thaler, E., Korotkin, H. B., Matheny, P. B., & Slot, J. C. (2018). Horizontal gene cluster transfer increased hallucinogenic mushroom diversity. Evolution Letters
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/evl3.42
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“Secondary metabolites are a heterogeneous class of chemicals that often mediate interactions between species. The tryptophan- derived secondary metabolite, psilocin, is a serotonin receptor agonist that induces altered states of consciousness. A phylogenet- ically disjunct group of mushroom-forming fungi in the Agaricales produce the psilocin prodrug, psilocybin. Spotty phylogenetic distributions of fungal compounds are sometimes explained by horizontal transfer of metabolic gene clusters among unrelated fungi with overlapping niches. We report the discovery of a psilocybin gene cluster in three hallucinogenic mushroom genomes, and evidence for its horizontal transfer between fungal lineages. Patterns of gene distribution and transmission suggest that synthesis of psilocybin may have provided a fitness advantage in the dung and late wood-decay fungal niches, which may serve as reservoirs of fungal indole-based metabolites that alter behavior of mycophagous and wood-eating invertebrates. These hal- lucinogenic mushroom genomes will serve as models in neurochemical ecology, advancing the (bio)prospecting and synthetic biology of novel neuropharmaceuticals.
Byock, I. (2018). Taking Psychedelics Seriously. Journal Of Palliative Medicine
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1089/jpm.2017.0684
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“BACKGROUND: Psychiatric research in the 1950s and 1960s showed potential for psychedelic medications to markedly alleviate depression and suffering associated with terminal illness. More recent published studies have demonstrated the safety and efficacy of psilocybin, MDMA, and ketamine when administered in a medically supervised and monitored approach. A single or brief series of sessions often results in substantial and sustained improvement among people with treatment-resistant depression and anxiety, including those with serious medical conditions. Need and Clinical Considerations: Palliative care clinicians occasionally encounter patients with emotional, existential, or spiritual suffering, which persists despite optimal existing treatments. Such suffering may rob people of a sense that life is worth living. Data from Oregon show that most terminally people who obtain prescriptions to intentionally end their lives are motivated by non-physical suffering. This paper overviews the history of this class of drugs and their therapeutic potential. Clinical cautions, adverse reactions, and important steps related to safe administration of psychedelics are presented, emphasizing careful patient screening, preparation, setting and supervision., CONCLUSION: Even with an expanding evidence base confirming safety and benefits, political, regulatory, and industry issues impose challenges to the legitimate use of psychedelics. The federal expanded access program and right-to-try laws in multiple states provide precendents for giving terminally ill patients access to medications that have not yet earned FDA approval. Given the prevalence of persistent suffering and growing acceptance of physician-hastened death as a medical response, it is time to revisit the legitimate therapeutic use of psychedelics.
He, X., Veetil, S. P., Pan, X., Sun, A., Liu, C., & Zhu, J. (2018). High-speed ptychographic imaging based on multiple-beam illumination. Optics Express
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1364/OE.26.025869
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“Psilocybin was first isolated from Psilocybe mexicana Heim. The same method of extraction has since been employed to isolate Psilocybin from the dried carpophores of the following fungi: Psilocybe caerulescens Murr.var. Mazatecorum Heim; Psilocybe Zapotecorum Heim; Psilocybe Aztecorum Heim; Psilocybe semperviva Heim and Cailleuz; Stropharia cubensis Earle, of Mexican, Siamese and Cambodian origin. Thus, Psilocybin has been found not only in all Mexican species of Psilocybe studied but also in Stropharia cubensis from Mexicao and South-East Asia. The hallucinogenic effect of Stropharia cubensis has been previously reported.
Grimm, O., Kraehenmann, R., Preller, K. H., Seifritz, E., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2018). Psilocybin modulates functional connectivity of the amygdala during emotional face discrimination. European Neuropsychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2018.03.016
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“Recent studies suggest that the antidepressant effects of the psychedelic 5-HT2A receptor agonist psilocybin are mediated through its modulatory properties on prefrontal and limbic brain regions including the amygdala. To further investigate the effects of psilocybin on emotion processing networks, we studied for the first-time psilocybin’s acute effects on amygdala seed-to-voxel connectivity in an event-related face discrimination task in 18 healthy volunteers who received psilocybin and placebo in a double-blind balanced cross-over design. The amygdala has been implicated as a salience detector especially involved in the immediate response to emotional face content. We used beta-series amygdala seed-to-voxel connectivity during an emotional face discrimination task to elucidate the connectivity pattern of the amygdala over the entire brain. When we compared psilocybin to placebo, an increase in reaction time for all three categories of affective stimuli was found. Psilocybin decreased the connectivity between amygdala and the striatum during angry face discrimination. During happy face discrimination, the connectivity between the amygdala and the frontal pole was decreased. No effect was seen during discrimination of fearful faces. Thus, we show psilocybin’s effect as a modulator of major connectivity hubs of the amygdala. Psilocybin decreases the connectivity between important nodes linked to emotion processing like the frontal pole or the striatum. Future studies are needed to clarify whether connectivity changes predict therapeutic effects in psychiatric patients.
Kometer, M., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2018). Serotonergic hallucinogen-induced visual perceptual alterations. In Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/7854_2016_461
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“Serotonergic hallucinogens, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin, and N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), are famous for their capacity to temporally and profoundly alter an individual’s visual experiences. These visual alterations show consistent attributes despite large inter- and intra-individual vari- ances. Many reports document a common perception of colors as more saturated, with increased brightness and contrast in the environment (“Visual Intensifications”). Environmental objects might be altered in size (“Visual illusions”) or take on a modified and special meaning for the subject (“Altered self-reference”). Subjects may perceive light flashes or geometrical figures containing recurrent patterns (“Elementary imagery and hallucinations”)influenced by auditory stimuli (“Audiovisual synesthesia”), or they may envision images of people, animals, or landscapes (“Complex imagery and hallucinations”) without any physical stimuli supporting their percepts. This wide assortment of visual phenomena suggests that one single neuropsychopharmacological mechanism is unlikely to explain such vast phenomenological diversity. Starting with mechanisms that act at the cellular level, the key role of 5-HT2A receptor activation and the subsequent increased cortical excitation will be considered. Next, it will be shown that area specific anatomical and dynamical features link increased excitation to the specific visual contents of hal- lucinations. The decrease of alpha oscillations by hallucinogens will then be intro- duced as a systemic mechanism for amplifying internal-driven excitation that overwhelms stimulus-induced excitations. Finally, the hallucinogen-induced parallel decrease of the N170 visual evoked potential and increased medial P1 potential will be discussed as key mechanisms for inducing a dysbalance between global integration and early visual gain that may explain several hallucinogen-induced visual experiences, including visual hallucinations, illusions, and intensifications
von Heyden, M., & Jungaberle, H. (2018). Psychedelika. In Handbuch Psychoaktive Substanzen
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-55214-4
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“aximilian von Heyden und Henrik Jungaberle Zusammenfassung Psychedelika (klassische bzw. serotonerge Halluzinogene) sind psychoaktive Substanzen, welche Wahrnehmung, Affekte sowie eine Reihe kognitiver Pro-zesse intensiv verändern können. Die Mehrheit ihrer Vertreter gilt als physio-logisch sicher und nicht addiktiv. Ihre Geschichte reicht bis in prähistorische Zeit zurück. Mit der Entdeckung der Wirkstoffe Meskalin, Lysergsäurediethylamid (LSD), Dimethyltryptamin (DMT) und Psilocybin begann sowohl ihre wissen-schaftliche Erforschung als auch die Verbreitung ihres nicht medizinischen Gebrauchs. Psychedelika stellen eine pharmakologisch, psychometrisch und tierexperimentell abgrenzbare Substanzklasse dar, die zunehmend im Interesse der medizinischen Grundlagen- und Therapieforschung steht. Dieses Kapitel strebt hinsichtlich der relevanten Wissensgebiete einen ausgewogenen Kurzüber-blick über die Substanzklasse und ihre wichtigsten Vertreter an, wobei dem historisch komplexen Wirkgefüge zwischen Medizin- und Sozialgeschichte der Substanzklasse ein Schwerpunkt gewidmet ist.
Müller, F., Liechti, M. E., Lang, U. E., & Borgwardt, S. (2018). Advances and challenges in neuroimaging studies on the effects of serotonergic hallucinogens: Contributions of the resting brain. Progress In Brain Research
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2018.08.004
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“The effects of hallucinogenic drugs on the human brain have been studied since the earliest days of neuroimaging in the 1990s. However, approaches are often hard to compare and results are heterogeneous. In this chapter, we summarize studies investigating the effects of hallucinogens on the resting brain, with a special emphasis on replicability and limitations. In previous studies, similarities were observed between psilocybin, LSD, and ayahuasca, with respect to decreases in cerebral blood flow and increases in global functional connectivity in the precuneus and thalamus. Additionally, LSD consistently decreased functional connectivity within distinct resting state networks. Little convergence was observed for connectivity between networks and for blood flow in other brain regions. Although these studies are limited by small sample sizes and might be biased by unspecific drug effects on physiological parameters and the vascular system, current results indicate that neuroimaging could be a useful tool to elucidate the neuronal correlates of hallucinogenic effects.
2017
Lewis, C. R., Preller, K. H., Kraehenmann, R., Michels, L., Staempfli, P., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2017). Two dose investigation of the 5-HT-agonist psilocybin on relative and global cerebral blood flow. Neuroimage
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.07.020
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“Psilocybin, the active compound in psychedelic mushrooms, is an agonist of various serotonin receptors. Seminal psilocybin positron emission tomography (PET) research suggested regional increases in glucose metabolism in frontal cortex (hyperfrontality). However, a recent arterial spin labeling (ASL) study suggests psilocybin may lead to hypo-perfusion in various brain regions. In this placebo-controlled, double-blind study we used pseudo-continuous ASL (pCASL) to measure perfusion changes, with and without adjustment for global brain perfusion, after two doses of oral psilocybin (low dose: 0.160 mg/kg; high dose: 0.215 mg/kg) in two groups of healthy controls (n = 29 in both groups, total N = 58) during rest. We controlled for sex and age and used family-wise error corrected p values in all neuroimaging analyses. Both dose groups reported profound subjective drug effects as measured by the Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale (5D-ASC) with the high dose inducing significantly larger effects in four out of the 11 scales. After adjusting for global brain perfusion, psilocybin increased relative perfusion in distinct right hemispheric frontal and temporal regions and bilaterally in the anterior insula and decreased perfusion in left hemispheric parietal and temporal cortices and left subcortical regions. Whereas, psilocybin significantly reduced absolute perfusion in frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes, and bilateral amygdalae, anterior cingulate, insula, striatal regions, and hippocampi. Our analyses demonstrate consistency with both the hyperfrontal hypothesis of psilocybin and the more recent study demonstrating decreased perfusion, depending on analysis method. Importantly, our data illustrate that relative changes in perfusion should be understood and interpreted in relation to absolute signal variations.
Kraehenmann, R., Pokorny, D., Aicher, H., Preller, K. H., Pokorny, T., Bosch, O. G., et al. (2017). LSD increases primary process thinking via serotonin 2A receptor activation. Frontiers In Pharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00814
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“Rationale: Stimulation of serotonin 2A (5-HT2A) receptors by lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and related compounds such as psilocybin has previously been shown to increase primary process thinking – an ontologically and evolutionary early, implicit, associative, and automatic mode of thinking which is typically occurring during altered states of consciousness such as dreaming. However, it is still largely unknown whether LSD induces primary process thinking under placebo-controlled, standardized experimental conditions and whether these effects are related to subjective experience and 5-HT2A receptor activation. Therefore, this study aimed to test the hypotheses that LSD increases primary process thinking and that primary process thinking depends on 5-HT2A receptor activation and is related to subjective drug effects. Methods: Twenty-five healthy subjects performed an audio-recorded mental imagery task 7 h after drug administration during three drug conditions: placebo, LSD (100 mcg orally) and LSD together with the 5-HT2A receptor antagonist ketanserin (40 mg orally). The main outcome variable in this study was primary index (PI), a formal measure of primary process thinking in the imagery reports. State of consciousness was evaluated using the Altered State of Consciousness (5D-ASC) rating scale. Results: LSD, compared with placebo, significantly increased primary index (p < 0.001, Bonferroni-corrected). The LSD-induced increase in primary index was positively correlated with LSD-induced disembodiment (p < 0.05, Bonferroni-corrected), and blissful state (p < 0.05, Bonferroni-corrected) on the 5D-ASC. Both LSD-induced increases in primary index and changes in state of consciousness were fully blocked by ketanserin. Conclusion: LSD induces primary process thinking via activation of 5-HT2A receptors and in relation to disembodiment and blissful state. Primary process thinking appears to crucially organize inner experiences during both dreams and psychedelic states of consciousness.
Bogenschutz, M. P. (2017). The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse Encompassing All Addictive Disorders. The American Journal Of Drug And Alcohol Abuse
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/00952990.2016.1200060
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“ISSN: 0095-2990 (Print) 1097-9891 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/iada20 It’s time to take psilocybin seriously as a possible treatment for substance use disorders Michael P. Bogenschutz To cite this article: Michael P. Bogenschutz (2017) It’s time to take psilocybin seriously as a possible treatment for substance use disorders, The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 43:1, 4-6,
Barrett, F. S., Johnson, M. W., & Griffiths, R. R. (2017). Neuroticism is associated with challenging experiences with psilocybin mushrooms. Personality And Individual Differences
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2017.06.004
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“Objectives Classic hallucinogens (e.g. psilocybin and LSD) have substantial effects on perception, cognition, and emotion that can often be psychologically challenging, however we know very little regarding the source of significant individual variability that has been observed in the frequency and intensity of challenging experiences (i.e. “bad trips”) with psychedelics. Previous clinical and observational literature suggests that there may be an association between neuroticism and challenging psychedelic experiences. Methods Data from two online surveys of challenging experiences with psilocybin were analyzed. Multivariate analysis was used to estimate the associations between total score and scores from seven sub-factors (fear, grief, physical distress, insanity, isolation, death, and paranoia) of the Challenging Experience Questionnaire (CEQ), and scale scores from the Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI) in Study 1 (N = 1993) and the Big Five Inventory (BFI) in Study 2 (N = 981). Results CEQ scores were negatively associated with emotional stability scores (the inverse of neuroticism) in Study 1 and positively associated with neuroticism scores in Study 2. Conclusions Neuroticism may contribute to the strength of challenging experiences with psychedelics in uncontrolled settings.
Orsolini, L., Papanti, G. D., De Berardis, D., Guirguis, A., Corkery, J. M., & Schifano, F. (2017). The “Endless Trip” among the NPS users: Psychopathology and psychopharmacology in the Hallucinogen-persisting perception disorder. A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00240
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“Hallucinogen-persisting perception disorder (HPPD) is a syndrome characterized by prolonged or reoccurring perceptual symptoms, reminiscent of acute hallucinogen effects. HPPD was associated with a broader range of LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)-like substances, cannabis, methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), psilocybin, mescaline, and psychostimulants. The recent emergence of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) posed a critical concern regarding the new onset of psychiatric symptoms/syndromes, including cases of HPPD. Symptomatology mainly comprises visual disorders (i.e., geometric pseudo-hallucinations, haloes, flashes of colors/lights, motion-perception deficits, afterimages, micropsia, more acute awareness of floaters, etc.), even though depressive symptoms and thought disorders may be comorbidly present. Although HPPD was first described in 1954, it was just established as a fully syndrome in 2000, with the revised fourth version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR). HPPD neural substrates, risk factors, and aetiopathogenesys still largely remain unknown and under investigation, and many questions about its pharmacological targets remain unanswered too. A critical mini review on psychopathological bases, etiological hypothesis, and psychopharmacological approaches toward HPPD, including the association with some novel substances, are provided here, by means of a literature search on PubMed/Medline, Google Scholar, and Scopus databases without time restrictions, by using a specific set of keywords. Pharmacological and clinical issues are considered, and practical psychopharmacological recommendations and clinical guidelines are suggested.
Barsuglia, J., Davis, A., Palmer, R., Lancelotta, R., Windam-Herman, M., Peterson, K., et al. (2017). Characterization of Mystical Experiences Occasioned by 5-MeO-DMT Containing Toad Bufotoxin and Comparison with Prior Psilocybin Studies. In Psychedelic Science
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/1467-9655.12733
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“Background : 5-MeO-DMT is a potent tryptamine found in high concentrations in the venom of the Colorado River Toad. Practical experience suggests that vaporized 5-MeO-DMT may induce mystical experiences that are relatively brief, yet have comparable or greater intensity than those induced by psilocybin. Quantitative evaluations of 5-MeO-DMT induced mystical experiences have not yet been published. Methods : Study participants were patients (n = 44, 61% male, M age = 34.6 yrs.) from a clinic in Mexico that utilizes 5-MeO-DMT as part of addiction and psychospiritual clinical treatment protocols. All patients received vaporized organic/toadsource 5-MeO-DMT at the median effective dose (50mg raw weight, estimated 5-MeO-DMT content = 57mg, Metzner, 2013). All patients completed the States of Consciousness Questionnaire (SOCQ) 24 hours following treatment. The SOCQ contains all items of the Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ30) (Barrett et al., 2015; Griffiths et al., 2006). Results : The mean endorsement on the MEQ30 following 5-MeO-DMT was 75.5 percent (sd = 16.5) of the maximum possible total score, suggestive of mysticaltype experiences in the sample. A majority of patients (61.4%) had “a complete mystical experience” ( > 60% of the maximum possible score on all MEQ30 subscales: mystical, positive mood, space/time, ineffability). Overall, the MEQ30 exhibited excellent internal consistency (α = .96). Several SOCQ items not contained in the MEQ30 were also endorsed as “strong” or “extreme” by twothirds or more of the sample and included: experiencing overflowing energy and radiant/golden light, and feeling universal or infinite love, closeness with guides, and a hyperreal sense of consciousness (7566% of sample). Significance: The mystical experience occasioned by the 5-MeO-DMT containing toad venom was consistent with MEQ30 ratings with moderate to high psilocybin doses (2030mg/ 70kg) administered in prior research (Barrett, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2015). The short duration of action of 5MeODMT may be advantageous for clinical and psychospiritual interventions.
Bleyer, J. (2017). A DOORWAY TO CHANGE: EBSCOhost. Psychology Today
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“The article focuses on psychedelic drugs as a treatment option for alcohol addiction. Topics discussed include the experimental medicine, psilocybin, the active ingredient in so-called magic mushrooms, research on the antiaddictive influence of ayahuasca, an Amazonian hallucinogenic brew, and ibogaine, a psychoactive alkaloid derived from a plant from west central Africa, and spirituality which has been linked to the study of addiction.
de Veen, B. T. H., Schellekens, A. F. A., Verheij, M. M. M., & Homberg, J. R. (2017). Psilocybin for treating substance use disorders?. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/14737175.2016.1220834
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“Introduction: Evidence based treatment for Substance use disorders (SUD) includes psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy. However, these are only partially effective. Hallucinogens, such as psilocybin, may represent potential new treatment options for SUD. This review provides a summary of (human) studies on the putative therapeutic effects of psilocybin, and discusses the receptor systems, brain regions and cognitive and emotional processes mediating psilocybin’s effects. Psilocybin’s chemical structure is similar to that of serotonin. Dysregulations in the serotonin system are associated with alterations in stress hormones, such as cortisol, and mood disorders. After psilocybin administration cortisol levels spike and activate the executive control network, with subsequent increased control over emotional processes, and relief of negative thinking and persistent negative emotions. Preliminary data of ongoing alcohol and smoking addiction studies in humans shows promising effects of psilocybin administration on substance use. Importantly, psilocybin has a low risk of toxicity and dependence and can be used safely under controlled clinical conditions.Areas covered: This paper is a narrative review based on the search terms: psilocybin, substance use disorder, addiction, depression, serotonin. Literature on potential efficacy and mechanisms of action of psilocybin in SUD is discussed.Expert commentary: Recent positive findings with psilocybin need confirmation in well-designed placebo controlled randomized trials employing a large sample size.
Letheby, C. (2017). NATURALIZING PSYCHEDELIC SPIRITUALITY. Zygon
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/zygo.12353
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“A pressing philosophical problem is how to respond to the existential, anxiety and disenchantment resulting from a naturalistic worldview that eschews transcendent foundations for meaning and value. This problem is becoming more urgent as the popularization of neuroscientific findings renders a disenchanted conception of human beings ever more vivid, compelling, and widespread. I argue that the study of transformative experiences occasioned by classic psychedelic drugs such as lysergic acid diethylamide and psilocybin may reveal the nature of a viable practical solution to this problem. Despite the apparent centrality of nonnaturalistic metaphysical apprehensions to psychedelic transformation, findings from psychedelic research suggest that key elements of psychedelic or “entheogenic” spirituality are consistent with naturalism. These include disruption to neurocognitive mechanisms underpinning the sense of self, and consequent experiences of self-transcendence and of the decoupling of attention from personal concerns. This liberation of attention can result in the availability of broader perspectives and the development of wonder and appreciation for life.
Nelson, L. F., Harland, K. K., Shane, D. M., Ahmed, A., & Mohr, N. M. (2017). Safety of Back-Transfer to Local Hospitals During an Acute Care Hospitalization. The Journal Of Rural Health
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/jrh.12267
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“Previous studies indicate that mismatch negativity (MMN)-a preattentive auditory event-related potential (ERP)-depends on NMDA receptor (NMDAR) functioning. To explore if the strength of MMN generation reflects the functional condition of the NMDAR system in healthy volunteers, we analyzed correlations between MMN recorded before drug administration and subsequent responses to the NMDAR antagonist ketamine or the 5-HT2a agonist psilocybin.
Daniel, J., & Haberman, M. (2017). Clinical potential of psilocybin as a treatment for mental health conditions. Mental Health Clinician
Plain numerical DOI: 10.9740/mhc.2017.01.024
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“Psilocybin, a classic hallucinogen, is a chemical produced by more than 100 species of mushrooms worldwide. It has high affinity for several serotonin receptors, including 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A, and 5-HT2C, located in numerous areas of the brain, including the cerebral cortex and thalamus. With legislation introduced in 1992, more work is being done to further understand the implications of psilocybin use in a number of disease states. Certain mental health disease states and symptoms have been studied, including depressed mood, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, alcohol use disorder, and tobacco use disorder. This article provides an in-depth review of the study design and results of psilocybin in each of these conditions and discusses the clinical potential for use.
Danylova, T. V. (2017). EASTERN MYSTICISM AND TIMOTHY LEARY: HUMAN BEYOND THE CONVENTIONAL REALITY. Anthropological Measurements Of Philosophical Research
Plain numerical DOI: 10.15802/ampr.v0i11.105498
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“Introduction. The complex multifaceted essence of human as a biological, psychological, social being has attracted the attention of researchers and has caused hot debates during centuries. Still now, human being, her/his nature requires a broader understanding in the context of the synthesis of long-standing philosophical, psychological, religious traditions and contemporary sciences. Purpose. This paper aims to explore the phenomenon of human being through the lens of the Eastern philosophy and T. Leary’s transpersonal perspective. Methodology. Exploratory research design was used for conducting this study. The author has used philosophical hermeneutics, secondary data collected from reports, journals, and periodicals along with own transpersonal experience. Theoretical basis and results. The essence of Eastern worldview is an awareness of unity and coherence of all things and phenomena. All things are the interdependent and interrelated parts of the One Whole: they are the different manifestations of the same unconditional reality. This is Tao for Taoists, Dharmakaya for Buddhists, Brahman for Hindus. These non-dualistic traditions emphasize: we have to transcend our dual thinking in order to perceive true nature of our inner self and to achieve the state of the absolute unity with everything that exists.
Bogenschutz, M. P. (2017). It’s time to take psilocybin seriously as a possible treatment for substance use disorders. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/00952990.2016.1200060
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“ISSN: 0095-2990 (Print) 1097-9891 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/iada20 It’s time to take psilocybin seriously as a possible treatment for substance use disorders Michael P. Bogenschutz To cite this article: Michael P. Bogenschutz (2017) It’s time to take psilocybin seriously as a possible treatment for substance use disorders, The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 43:1, 4-6, In the current issue of the American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, Johnson et al. (1) provide long-term outcome data from a smoking cessation pilot study of a treatment model using 2–3 doses of psilocybin in combination with cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for smoking cessation. The short-term results of this study were remarkable: 12/15 participants (80%) were abstinent at 6-month fol-low-up, based on the self-report validated by urinary cotinine and breath carbon monoxide levels (2). The long-term results reported in the current are even more impressive: 10/15 remained abstinent at 12 months, and 9/12 remained abstinent at long-term follow-up (ranging from 16 to 57 months). Such results are unheard of in smoking cessation treat-ment. In addition, subjects reported no persisting adverse effects from treatment. These results are consistent with results of a proof-of-concept study (n = 10) of psilocybin-assisted treat-ment of alcohol dependence conducted by my research team, which showed robust decreases in drinking, with a pre-post effect size of d > 1 persisting at the final 9-month follow-up visit (3). Additional support for this line of research is found in results of a meta-analysis of the results of randomized trials conducted with lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in the treatment of alcoholism in the 1960s to early 1970s, where LSD approximately doubled the odds of abstinence or clinical recovery at initial follow-up (4). Randomized-controlled trials are now in progress testing the efficacy of psilocybin-assisted treatment of tobacco, alcohol, and cocaine use disorders. Initial findings from studies of psilocybin-assisted treatment of mood and anxiety disorders are also very promising. Following up on a pilot study pub-lished by Grob et al. in 2011 (5), Phase 2 trials were recently completed at Johns Hopkins University and New York University testing the effects of psilocybin in the treatment of symptoms of anxiety and depres-sion in the context of a life-threatening cancer diag-nosis. Although the results have not yet been published in full, preliminary findings from the Hopkins study presented at the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology (ACNP) conference in 2015 included medium to large effects at a 5-week follow-up on symptoms of depression and anxiety in patients treated with a moderate to high dose of psilocybin, relative to a low-dose psilocybin control condition (6). The improvement was sus-tained at 6-month follow-up. Very recently, results were reported from a pilot study in which 12 patients with treatment-resistant depression received psilocybin-assisted treatment including a low dose session followed one week later by a high-dose ses-sion (7). Depressive symptoms were markedly reduced following the high-dose session, and remained so at the final follow-up, with an effect size of g = 2 at three months. There were no serious or unexpected adverse events. Although the limitations of these small studies are obvious and not to be ignored, there are striking consis-tencies across the studies that enhance their credibility. The first consistent finding is robust and persistent long-term change in outcome measures following discrete exposure(s) to the drug, in the context of psychosocial treatment platform that both addresses the problematic behaviors/symptoms and provides a safe container for the experience. The second is the lack of harmful effects among study participants. Although the total number of study participants in the recent clinical studies is small, the safety profile of psilocybin in nonclinical samples has also been excellent. The third finding of interest in both the smoking and alcohol pilot studies was that aspects of the psilocybin experience were predictive of outcome. In particular, the degree to which participants reported mys-tical-type experiences with psilocybin related to greater
Majić, T., Jungaberle, H., Schmidt, T., Zeuch, A., Hermle, L., & Gallinat, J. (2017). Psychotherapie mit adjuvanter Gabe von serotonergen psychoaktiven Substanzen – Möglichkeiten und Hindernisse. Fortschritte Der Neurologie · Psychiatrie
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1055/s-0043-103085
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“Hintergrund Der Einsatz von serotonergen Halluzinogenen (Psychedelika) wie Lysergsäure-Diethylamid (LSD) und Psilocybin und Entaktogenen wie 3,4-Methylendioxymethamphetamin (MDMA) im Rahmen von Psychotherapie ist in den letzten Jahren wieder zunehmend ins Licht des wissenschaftlichen Interesses gerückt. Die vorliegende Arbeit fasst die aktuelle Evidenz zur substanzunterstützten Psychotherapie mit serotonergen Psychoaktiva zusammen.
Thomas, K., Malcolm, B., & Lastra, D. (2017). Psilocybin-Assisted Therapy: A Review of a Novel Treatment for Psychiatric Disorders. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2017.1320734
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“Recent research suggests that functional connectivity changes may be involved in the pathophy- siology of psychiatric disorders. Hyperconnectivity in the default mode network has been asso- ciated with psychopathology, but psychedelic serotonin agonists like psilocybin may profoundly disrupt these dysfunctional neural network circuits and provide a novel treatment for psychiatric disorders. We have reviewed the current literature to investigate the efficacy and safety of psilocybin-assisted therapy for the treatment of psychiatric disorders. There were seven clinical trials that investigated psilocybin-assisted therapy as a treatment for psychiatric disorders related to anxiety, depression, and substance use. All trials demonstrated reductions in psychiatric rating scale scores or increased response and remission rates. There were large effect sizes related to improved depression and anxiety symptoms. Psilocybin may also potentially reduce alcohol or tobacco use and increase abstinence rates in addiction, but the benefits of these two trials were less clear due to open-label study designs without statistical analysis. Psilocybin-assisted therapy efficacy and safety appear promising, but more robust clinical trials will be required to support FDA approval and identify the potential role in clinical psychiatry.
T.W., F., & M.N., S. (2017). Anti-inflammatory effects of serotonin 5-HT2A receptor activation in ovalbumin-induced allergic asthma models. Faseb Journal
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“Only recently has the full therapeutic value of serotonin [5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HT)] receptor activation begun to be explored. Currently there are two 5-HT2A receptor agonists in human clinical trials for the treatment of depression and obesity. An exciting new therapeutic avenue in which 5-HT2A agonists might be employed is the modulation of inflammation in allergic airways disease. Our lab has previously used an ovalbumin (OVA)-induced asthma model to demonstrate that administration of (R)-2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine [(R)-DOI] prior to allergen challenge prevents many of the symptoms of allergic asthma. Here we have utilized a modified protocol to test the effectiveness of (R)-DOI in treating persistent allergic asthma. We demonstrate that administration of (R)-DOI in a chronic model attenuates the elevated airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) typically observed in an asthmatic response. We also have probed for the expression of inflammatory markers in the lung and BALF. We concurrently are testing for the impact psilocybin and other tryptamines have on AHR in rodents using our OVA model. Overall our strategy is to develop 5-HT2A receptor agonism as a viable treatment modality against asthma and other inflammatory disorders.
DAWID KRAWCZYK,. (2017). Drugs between East and West: In Search Of Central and Eastern European Drug Policy at UN meeting in Vienna – Political Critique
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“Is there anything in common between the progressive Czech Republic and conservative Hungary bending towards drug-free ideology?\r\nThe lights are dimming down. We almost feel like we are at the cinema. Large screens timidly present slides of black-and-white photos. The background music would work well for a fancy fountain pen’s ad, or one for a luxurious brand of pralines: serene and dignified.\r\n\r\nOne of the first slides shows Harry Anslinger, the founder of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics in the U.S. and the U.S. Representative to the United Nations Narcotics Commission. However, the slide doesn’t show he was a devoted racist who couldn’t decide between despising black Americans or Asians more. The biggest achievement of his life? He successfully lobbied for global drug prohibition. On the slideshow, he is depicted as a hero.\r\n\r\nMore photos. It’s 1961. Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs is signed. Cannabis joins other controlled substances (opium, cocaine, heroin, morphine, and a few others). Great success! Ten years later, in 1971, the UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances is signed. Psychedelics (MDMA, LSD, DMT, psilocybin, etc.) get scheduled, meaning that from now on their use will be strictly controlled. Another triumph for prohibitionists! The next slide shows a gathering of officials in the ‘70s. They have signed a third treaty, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, which means that what was already in place is only reinforced further: the list of scheduled substances grow, while the expressions of guys in suits in the photos look more and more excited with each screened photo.\r\n\r\nMore photos, more happy faces, more dates. The last ones’ date from the 2009 Political Declaration, where the drug-free world phantasy was reiterated, and from the UNGASS 2016 (United Nations General Assembly Special Session On the World Drug Problem) in New York.
Bonson, K., Trachtenberg, A., & Klein, M. (2017). Assessing the abuse potential of botanical substances. Drug And Alcohol Dependence
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.08.080
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“Aims: The FDA’s Botanical Drug Development (2015) describes the pathway for a drug of botanical origins to be tested for safety and efficacy so that itmaybecome a marketed drug product. As with any drug under development, botanical drugs must comply with all regulations of the FD&CA. Thus,whena botanical drug has CNS activity, it will need to undergo an abuse potential assessment by the Controlled Substance Staff at FDA, as described in the FDA’s Assessment of the Abuse Potential of Drugs (2010). A CSS evaluation also occurs when the DEA is considering whether to place a newly emerging street drug of botanical origins under the control of the Controlled Substances Act. Currently, only five plants or their constituent parts are scheduled under the CSA: Cannabis spp. (marijuana, Sch. I hallucinogen), Tabernanthe iboga (ibogaine, Sch. I hallucinogen), Lophophora williamsii (peyote cactus; Sch. I hallucinogen); Opium poppy and poppy straw (from Papaver somniferum, Sch. II opiate), and Coca leaves (only this plant part from Erythroxylum coca, Sch. II stimulant). In contrast, scheduled substances such as psilocybin and psilocyn (Sch. I hallucinogen), cocaine (Sch. II stimulant), cathinone (Sch. I stimulant), and cathine (Sch. IV stimulant) are derived from botanical sources that are not themselves scheduled. This presentation will detail the challenges involved in evaluating botanicals for abuse potential. These include whether it is necessary to evaluate the entire plant structure, how chemicals extracted from a plant may be tested in animal abuse-related studies, how to select an appropriate positive control, how to manage the presence of other constituents of the botanical substance, and how to test the botanical drug in a human abuse potential study. Conclusions: A botanical drug with CNS activity must undergo an abuse potential assessment to fully evaluate its safety. Although there are challenges for these novel drug products, an appropriate assessment of these drugs is possible using the principles of regulatory science.
Nichols, D. E., Grob, C. S., & Greer, G. R. (2017). Addressing the need for rigor in the rebirth of hallucinogen research. Drug And Alcohol Dependence
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.10.010
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“We at the Heffter Research Institute appreciate Dr. Dakwar’s overview of the history and present environment of hallucinogen research. (CPDD News and Views, this volume). With the notable exceptions we address below, he gives a balanced assessment of the potential risks and benefits of hallucinogen research, and we generally agree with his perspective, including the need for government research funds. We are writing to answer some concerns that Dr. Dakwar raises. His opinion article states that Heffter has “a clear agenda: to see hallucinogens reinstated as viable treatment modalities.” It is true that Heffter-supported scientists are deeply curious about their chosen fields and they conduct research they hope will prove truly helpful. We would hope that this applies to scientists everywhere. To assure quality and integrity in the presence of possible investigator bias, the scientific method, as it is pursued today, includes numerous checks and balances. To name some of them: mentors and peers assist researchers in developing hypotheses and methods. The FDA and DEA review protocols as required. IRBs review protocols, often with greater scrutiny for hallucinogen research. Finally, quality journals implement rigorous outside review processes prior to accepting papers for publication. Dr. Dakwar notes correctly that Heffter is shepherding private funding and coordinating research with hallucinogens. Any concern that raises is not unique to Heffter. The scientific process includes checks and balances deemed sufficient to manage potential conflicts of interest, including the exclusion of board members from deliberations on funding their research. What is more, in addition to the safeguards listed above, Heffter’s involvement provides another assurance of quality science, as Heffter sends all grant proposals out for external anonymous peer review and rigorously reviews each proposed study prior to funding. These reviewers are among the most experienced experts with respect to each specific research topic at hand. Altogether, we stand by each of the more than 80 peer-reviewed publications that Heffter funding has supported to date. We would like to take this opportunity to mention just a few of these contributions to basic clinical science and, we hope, eventually to novel therapies that can provide relief in cases where today’s conventional treatments fall short. From our supported laboratory at the University of Z�rich, detailed elucidations of the effect of psilocybin on emotional processing and mood states; at UCLA, a pilot study investigating relief of psychospiritual suffering in cancer patients; at Johns Hopkins and NYU, as yet unpublished Phase 2 randomized controlled trials exploring the same indication; and studies of the efficacy of psilocybin-assisted therapy in alcohol and nicotine addiction, now both being expanded to randomized controlled trials following encouraging results from initial small pilot studies. That leads to the matter of how scientific findings are communicated to the public. Dr. Dakwar refers to “grand pronouncements.” It is true that the lay “psychedelic community” often displays enthusiasm not backed by science. Heffter-supported researchers act to moderate such enthusiasm, giving clarity about what the science does and doesn’t say, and routinely emphasizing the risks that hallucinogen use may pose outside of supervised research settings (and which are reduced to near-zero within such settings). Although it is unfortunate that tweets and newspaper headlines often sacrifice rigor for brevity, in the big picture, Heffter researchers stand at the forefront both of the science and of communicating it responsibly. Dr. Dakwar concludes his piece saying, “This does not mean, however, that such research does not serve an important role. The main contribution they stand to make is to demonstrate the feasibility of hallucinogen-based treatment models, and to promote continued conversation about the place of hallucinogens in treatment and in our larger culture. This is a noteworthy endeavor, and one that is likely to serve as a springboard for more substantial impact in the future.” Here we are in complete agreement. That is why we founded Heffter 23 years ago and have devoted much of our professional lives to seeking the answers to these crucial questions.
Schartner, M. M., Carhart-Harris, R. L., Barrett, A. B., Seth, A. K., & Muthukumaraswamy, S. D. (2017). Increased spontaneous MEG signal diversity for psychoactive doses of ketamine, LSD and psilocybin. Scientific Reports
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/srep46421
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“What is the level of consciousness of the psychedelic state? Empirically, measures of neural signal diversity such as entropy and Lempel-Ziv (LZ) complexity score higher for wakeful rest than for states with lower conscious level like propofol-induced anesthesia. Here we compute these measures for spontaneous magnetoencephalographic (MEG) signals from humans during altered states of consciousness induced by three psychedelic substances: psilocybin, ketamine and LSD. For all three, we find reliably higher spontaneous signal diversity, even when controlling for spectral changes. This increase is most pronounced for the single-channel LZ complexity measure, and hence for temporal, as opposed to spatial, signal diversity. We also uncover selective correlations between changes in signal diversity and phenomenological reports of the intensity of psychedelic experience. This is the first time that these measures have been applied to the psychedelic state and, crucially, that they have yielded values exceeding those of normal waking consciousness. These findings suggest that the sustained occurrence of psychedelic phenomenology constitutes an elevated level of consciousness – as measured by neural signal diversity.
Idell, R. D., Florova, G., Komissarov, A. A., Shetty, S., Girard, R. B. S., & Idell, S. (2017). The fibrinolytic system: A new target for treatment of depression with psychedelics. Medical Hypotheses
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2017.01.013
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“Current understanding of the neurobiology of depression has grown over the past few years beyond the traditional monoamine theory of depression to include chronic stress, inflammation and disrupted synaptic plasticity. Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) is a key factor that not only promotes fibrinolysis via the activation of plasminogen, but also contributes to regulation of synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis through plasmin-mediated activation of a probrain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) to mature BDNF. ProBDNF activation could potentially be supressed by competition with fibrin for plasmin and tPA. High affinity binding of plasmin and tPA to fibrin could result in a decrease of proBDNF activation during brain inflammation leading to fibrosis further perpetuating depressed mood. There is a paucity of data explaining the possible role of the fibrinolytic system or aberrant extravascular fibrin deposition in depression. We propose that within the brain, an imbalance between tPA and urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) and neuroserpin favors the inhibitors, resulting in changes in neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity, and neuroinflammation that result in depressive behavior. Our hypothesis is that peripheral inflammation mediates neuroinflammation, and that cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) can inhibit the fibrinolytic system by up- regulating PAI-1 and potentially neuroserpin. We propose that the decrement of the activity of tPA and uPA occurs with downregulation of uPA in part involving the binding and clearance from the surface of neural cells of uPA/PAI-1 complexes by the urokinase receptor uPAR. We infer that current antidepressants and ketamine mitigate depressive symptoms by restoring the balance of the fibrinolytic system with increased activity of tPA and uPA with down-regulated intracerebral expression of their inhibitors. We lastly hypothesize that psychedelic 5-ht2a receptor agonists, such as psilocybin, can improve mood through anti- inflammatory and pro-fibrinolytic effects that include blockade of TNF-α activity leading to decreased PAI-1 activity and increased clearance. The process involves disinhibition of tPA and uPA with subsequent increased cleavage of proBDNF which promotes neurogenesis, decreased neuroinflammation, decreased fibrin deposition, normalized glial-neuronal cross-talk, and optimally functioning neuro-circuits involved in mood. We propose that psilocybin can alleviate deleterious changes in the brain caused by chronic stress leading to restoration of homeostatic brain fibrinolytic capacity leading to euthymia.
Wilson, R. J. (2017). Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment. In Particle Physics at the Year of Light: Proceedings of the Seventeenth Lomonosov Conference on Elementary Particle Physics
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.nrl.2011.07.003
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“INTRODUCCIÓN\nEl continente americano es rico en hongos y plantas psicoactivas, y numerosas culturas precolombinas mesoamericanas las emplearon con fines mágicos, terapéuticos y religiosos. \n\nOBJETIVOS\nSe revisan las evidencias arqueológicas, etnohistóricas y etnográficas del uso de sustancias alucinógenas en Mesoamérica. \n\nRESULTADOS\nCactus, plantas y hongos alucinógenos se utilizaron para provocar estados alterados del nivel de conciencia en ceremonias rituales y curativas. Los mayas ingerían el balché (hidromiel y extracto de Lonchocarpus) en ceremonias grupales para lograr la embriaguez. También emplearon enemas rituales con sustancias psicoactivas para inducir estados de trance. Olmecas, zapotecas, mayas y aztecas usaron el peyote, los hongos alucinógenos (teonanacatl: Psylocibe spp.) y las semillas de ololiuhqui (Turbina corymbosa), que contienen mescalina, psilocibina y amida del ácido lisérgico, respectivamente. La piel del sapo Bufo spp. contiene bufotoxinas, con propiedades alucinógenas y fue usado desde el periodo olmeca. El toloache (Datura estramonio), el tabaco silvestre (Nicotiana rustica), el lirio de agua (Nymphaea ampla) y la hoja de la pastora (Salvia divinorum) se utilizaron por sus efectos psicotropos. Piedra fúngicas de 3.000 años de antigüedad se han encontrado en contextos rituales en Mesoamérica. Las evidencias arqueológicas del uso del peyote se remontan a más de 5.000 años. Diversos cronistas, entre ellos Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, relataron sus efectos en el siglo xvi. \n\nCONCLUSIONES\nEl empleo de sustancias psicotrópicas fue muy común en las sociedades precolombinas mesoamericanas. En la actualidad chamanes y curanderos locales las siguen usando en ceremonias rituales. \n\nINTRODUCTION\nThe American continent is very rich in psychoactive plants and fungi, and many pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures used them for magical, therapeutic and religious purposes. \n\nOBJECTIVES\nThe archaeological, ethno-historical and ethnographic evidence of the use of hallucinogenic substances in Mesoamerica is reviewed. \n\nRESULTS\nHallucinogenic cactus, plants and mushrooms were used to induce altered states of consciousness in healing rituals and religious ceremonies. The Maya drank balché (a mixture of honey and extracts of Lonchocarpus) in group ceremonies to achieve intoxication. Ritual enemas and other psychoactive substances were also used to induce states of trance. Olmec, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec used peyote, hallucinogenic mushrooms (teonanacatl: Psilocybe spp) and the seeds of ololiuhqui (Turbina corymbosa), that contain mescaline, psilocybin and lysergic acid amide, respectively. The skin of the toad Bufo spp contains bufotoxins with hallucinogenic properties, and was used since the Olmec period. Jimson weed (Datura stramonium), wild tobacco (Nicotiana rustica), water lily (Nymphaea ampla) and Salvia divinorum were used for their psychoactive effects. Mushroom stones dating from 3000 BC have been found in ritual contexts in Mesoamerica. Archaeological evidence of peyote use dates back to over 5000 years. Several chroniclers, mainly Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, described their effects in the sixteenth century. \n\nCONCLUSIONS\nThe use of psychoactive substances was common in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican societies. Today, local shamans and healers still use them in ritual ceremonies in Mesoamerica.
Jeanne, G., Purper-Ouakil, D., Rigole, H., & Franc, N. (2017). Nouveaux styles de consommation de produits psychoactifs chez les adolescents en France TT – New patterns of substance use and abuse among French adolescents, a knowledge synthesis. L’encéphale: Revue De Psychiatrie Clinique Biologique Et Thérapeutique
Plain numerical DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.encep.2016.05.012
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“Aim: There have been significant changes in adolescent consumption habits over the past fifteen years. New molecules have been synthesized, new devices created and a number of products have increased in popularity; and as a result clinicians sometimes lack information. We chose to focus on this population because of its vulnerability, as adolescents show low sensitivity to long-term outcomes of their actions and may be easily influenced by peers as regards experimentation of new drugs. The most consumed products by adolescents in France are tobacco, alcohol and cannabis with the physiological effects and consumption patterns of these drugs well documented. The purpose of this review is to identify and describe other products that are frequently used by adolescents to get high, to increase performance, for purposes of self-medication or because of peer pressure. We summarized the current scientific evidence regarding drug availability, physical and chemical properties, pharmacodynamics and adverse effects. Method: A literature review was conducted from 2000 to 2015 based on Pudmed, Google Scholar and governmental websites, using the following keyword alone or in combination: “adolescent”, “new”, “misuse”, “abuse”, “toxicity”, “pharmacology” “cocaine”, “MDMA”, “inhalant”, “poppers”, “magic mushroom”, “psilocybin”, “designer drug”, “legal high”, “smart drug”, “cathinone”, “mephedrone”, “cannabinoid”, “prescription drug”, “codeine”, “opioid”, “methylphenidate”, “cough syrup”, “purple drank”. Results: New products, including synthetic cannabis, cathinone or purple drank seem to be the most dangerous. They are easily accessible and may lead to short-term severe or lethal complications. Other substances do not pose a major short-term health risk by themselves. However, their consumption may be an indication of other unhealthy risk behaviors, such as prescription drug use, which may be related to psychiatric comorbidity. Unfortunately, we do not have enough data to determine the long-term consequences of the use of these substances. Moreover, these products have a strong addictive potential and may be a risk factor for other addictions. For this reason, increased supervision is justified, both for surveillance and reduction of harm. Conclusion: Taking care of an adolescent with substance abuse can be difficult. Updated information regarding these new substances and the particular danger they pose to adolescent health is needed. Informed clinicians can provide up to date and accurate information to the patient and family, assess potential risk factors and comorbidities, and provide appropriate support. Furthermore, because of the high prevalence of substance abuse in the adolescent population, systematic screening of adolescent consumption habit is useful to avoid or anticipate complications. Often, problematic substance consumption behaviors are signs of more complicated psychological or psychiatric issues. Substance abuse behaviors will often disappear over time but they can also become a major problem as the adolescent moves into adulthood. If problems persist, consultation with an addiction specialist may be warranted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: journal abstract) Original language abstractLes habitudes de consommation des adolescents ont profondément évolué ces quinze dernières années. Plusieurs nouveaux produits ont été développés et cette population, particulièrement vulnérable, y est largement exposée. Si le tabac, l’alcool et le cannabis restent les trois principaux produits les plus expérimentés durant l’adolescence, d’autres substances psychoactives sont aujourd’hui souvent utilisées et imposent une attention particulière. L’objectif de cette revue de la littérature est de faire une synthèse des connaissances actuelles sur ces substances en se basant sur les plus récentes publications sur le sujet, de comprendre leurs modes d’utilisation, leurs mécanismes d’action, d’évaluer les risques liés à leur consommation afin de permettre un repérage précoce et une réponse adaptée. Pour cela, des articles scientifiques parus entre 2000 et 2015 ont été sélectionnés via Pubmed et Google Scholar ainsi que sur des sites d’institution gouvernementale. Divers produits sont étudiés : après un bref rappel sur la cocaïne et les amphétaminiques, nous nous intéresserons aux inhalants, aux champignons hallucinogènes et aux nouveaux produits de synthèse que sont les cathinones et les cannabinoïdes de synthèse. Nous nous pencherons ensuite sur le mésusage de médicaments, pour enfin aborder le cas particulier du « purple drank ». Il en ressort que les habitudes de consommation des adolescents ne sont pas équivalentes en termes d’effets et de conséquences. De multiples produits sont disponibles et les plus récents sont également les plus inquiétants, tels que les nouveaux produits de synthèse ou le « purple drank », qui présentent des risques de complications médicales sévères à court terme. Ces éléments justifient le dépistage systématique de ces conduites et une prise en charge adaptée. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: journal abstract)
Wong, M. F., & Lim, C. Y. (2017). Customer Intention to Stay with Banks : Synergizing Online and Offline Service. In 4th International conference on E Commerece
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2007.12.064
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“Consumption of natural hallucinogenic substances continues to be a problem. In this case we report from a young male patient presenting with an acute coronary syndrome with significant ST-elevation after the abuse of psychoactive fungi, commonly referred to as “magic mushrooms”. Coronary angiography excludes relevant coronary artery disease. In ventriculography contractile dysfunction with hypokinesia in the apical segments could be documented reminiscent to wall motion abnormalities in Tako-Tsubo cardiomyopathy (TTC). Cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging showed no pathological signal activity in the late-enhancement sequences ruling out myocardial infarction or inflammatory processes. Ventricular function normalized within several days. The active metabolite of psychoactive fungi psilocybin is known to interact with several different dopaminergic, adrenergic and serotonergic receptors. Thus, the pathomechanisms leading to contractile dysfunction after consumption of psychoactive fungi are reminiscent to those documented in TTC.
Strauss, N. (2017). Psilocybin-assisted therapy for anxiety and depression: Implications for euthanasia. Medical Journal of Australia
Plain numerical DOI: 10.5694/mja17.00081
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Nichols, D. E., Johnson, M. W., & Nichols, C. D. (2017). Psychedelics as Medicines: An Emerging New Paradigm. Clinical Pharmacology And Therapeutics
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/cpt.557
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“Scientific interest in serotonergic psychedelics (e.g., psilocybin and LSD; 5-HT2A receptor agonists) has dramatically increasedwithin the last decade. Clinical studies administering psychedelicswith psychotherapy have shown preliminary evidence of robust efficacy in treating anxiety and depression, as well as addiction to tobacco and alcohol.Moreover, recent research has suggested that these compounds have potential efficacy against inflammatory diseases through novel mechanisms,with potential advantages over existing antiinflammatory agents.Wepropose that psychedelics exert therapeutic effects for psychiatric disorders by acutely destabilizing local brain network hubs and global network connectivity via amplification of neuronal avalanches, providing the occasion for brain network “resetting” after the acute effects have resolved. Antiinflammatory effectsmay hold promise for efficacy in treatment of inflammation-related nonpsy- chiatric as well as potentially for psychiatric disorders. Serotonergic psychedelics operate through uniquemechanisms that showpromising effects for a variety of intractable, debilitating, and lethal disorders, and should be rigorously researched.
Corrigendum to: Long-term follow-up of psilocybin-facilitated smoking cessation (The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, (2017), 43, 1, (55-60), 10.3109/00952990.2016.1170135). (2017). Corrigendum to: Long-term follow-up of psilocybin-facilitated smoking cessation (The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, (2017), 43, 1, (55-60), 10.3109/00952990.2016.1170135). American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/00952990.2016.1277105
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“Article title: Long-term follow-up of psilocybin-facilitated smoking cessation Authors: Matthew W. Johnson, Albert Garcia-Romeu, and Roland R. Griffiths Journal: The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol AbuseBibliometrics: Volume 43, Issue 1, pages 55-60, 2017 DOI: 10.3109/00952990.2016.1170135 Part of the funding information was missing in the original online publication. The correct information in the funding section should appear as: The Beckley Foundation provided initial funding for this research, with continued funding provided by Heffter Research Institute. Support for Dr. Garcia-Romeu was provided by the National Institute on Drug Abuse Grant T32DA07209. Support for Dr. Griffiths was provided in part by NIDA Grant R01DA003889. This has been updated in the print and online publications. The authors apologize for any inconvenience caused., Copyright © 2017 Taylor & Francis.
Parikh, N., Marathe, M., & Swarup, S. (2017). Summarizing simulation results using causally-relevant states. In Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics)
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-67477-3_4
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“Rationale This dose-effect study extends previous observations showing that psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having persisting positive effects on attitudes, mood, and behavior. Objectives This double-blind study evaluated psilocybin (0, 5, 10, 20, 30 mg/70 kg, p.o.) administered under supportive conditions. Methods Participants were 18 adults (17 hallucinogen-na < ve). Five 8-h sessions were conducted individually for each participant at 1-month intervals. Participants were randomized to receive the four active doses in either ascending or descending order (nine participants each). Placebo was scheduled quasi-randomly. During sessions, volunteers used eyeshades and were instructed to direct their attention inward. Volunteers completed questionnaires assessing effects immediately after and 1 month after each session, and at 14 months follow-up. Results Psilocybin produced acute perceptual and subjective effects including, at 20 and/or 30 mg/70 kg, extreme anxiety/fear (39% of volunteers) and/or mystical-type experience (72% of volunteers). One month after sessions at the two highest doses, volunteers rated the psilocybin experience as having substantial personal and spiritual significance, and attributed to the experience sustained positive changes in attitudes, mood, and behavior, with the ascending dose sequence showing greater positive effects. At 14 months, ratings were undiminished and were consistent with changes rated by community observers. Both the acute and persisting effects of psilocybin were generally a monotonically increasing function of dose, with the lowest dose showing significant effects. Conclusions Under supportive conditions, 20 and 30 mg/70 kg psilocybin occasioned mystical-type experiences having persisting positive effects on attitudes, mood, and behavior. Implications for therapeutic trials are discussed.
M., L. (2017). Re-emergence of psychedelic medicine. Schweizer Archiv Fur Neurologie Und Psychiatrie
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“Psychedelics are psychoactive substances that powerfully alter perception, mood, and cognitive processes. Despite the published adverse reactions, they are now considered physiologically safe and do not produce dependence or addiction. Known and used for millennia, their human use predates written history, and they were employed by early cultures in a variety of sociocultural and ritual contexts. Although there has been a western interest for over half a century in the therapeutic use of classic hallucinogens to treat substance use disorders and other selected psychiatric disorders, medical research with these drugs was halted in the early 1970s, leaving many questions unanswered. In the past two decades, after extensive research about the possible harmful effects of those substances, clinical research on the potential therapeutic uses of classic hallucinogens and associated substances has resumed, focusing mainly on conditions for which current recommended treatment have low efficacy or none. To date, trials were conducted with LSD and psilocybin for the treatment of fear and anxiety in people suffering from terminal illnesses, various types of classic psychedelics for substance abuse, MDMA for resistant PTSD, ketamine for resistant unipolar depressive disorder, and several substances for obsessive-compulsive disorder and cluster headaches, with results that appear very promising. Nevertheless, further research is needed to explore the therapeutic application for these conditions and provide evidence for their efficacy. Indeed, such research is underway in several countries including Switzerland. This review aims to give an overview of the current research and theories underlying the putative therapeutic mechanisms of action, including psychological and pharmacological aspects.
Johnson, M. W., Garcia-Romeu, A., & Griffiths, R. R. (2017). Long-term follow-up of psilocybin-facilitated smoking cessation. American Journal Of Drug And Alcohol Abuse
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3109/00952990.2016.1170135
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“Background: A recent open-label pilot study (N = 15) found that two to three moderate to high doses (20 and 30mg/70 kg) of the serotonin 2A receptor agonist, psilocybin, in combination with cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for smoking cessation, resulted in substantially higher 6-month smoking abstinence rates than are typically observed with othermedications or CBT alone. Objectives:To assess long-term effects of a psilocybin-facilitated smoking cessation program at ≥12 months after psilocybin administration. Methods: The present report describes biologically verified smoking abstinence outcomes of the previous pilot study at ≥12 months, and related data on subjective effects of psilocybin. Results: All 15 participants completed a 12-month follow-up, and 12 (80%) returned for a long-term (≥16 months) follow-up, with a mean interval of 30 months (range = 16–57 months) between target-quit date (i.e., first psilocybin session) and long-term follow-up. At 12-month follow-up, 10 participants (67%) were confirmed as smoking abstinent. At long-term follow-up, nine participants (60%) were confirmed as smoking abstinent. At 12-month follow-up 13 participants (86.7%) rated their psilocybin experiences among the five most personally meaningful and spiritually significant experiences of their lives. Conclusion: These results suggest that in the context of a structured treatment program, psilocybin holds considerable promise in promoting long-termsmoking abstinence. The present study adds to recent and historical evidence suggesting high success rates when using classic psychedelics in the treatment of addiction. Further research investigating psilocybin-facilitated treatment of substance use disorders is warranted.
Schenberg, E. E., de Castro Comis, M. A., Alexandre, J. F. M., Tófoli, L. F., Chaves, B. D. R., & da Silveira, D. X. (2017). A phenomenological analysis of the subjective experience elicited by ibogaine in the context of a drug dependence treatment. Journal Of Psychedelic Studies
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1556/2054.01.2017.007
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“ObjectiveThis report documents the phenomenology of the subjective experiences of 22 patients with substance-related disorders who were involved in a treatment combining cognitive–behavioral therapy and hospital sessions with ibogaine in Brazil.MethodsParticipants underwent a one-to-one semi-structured interview exploring the subjective effects of ibogaine. We employed interpretative phenomenological analysis to identify relevant phenomenological categories, including physical sensations, perceptual (visual, auditory, and olfactory), emotional, cognitive, and spiritual. Participants also compared ibogaine with other drugs used in life, including psychedelics like ayahuasca, psilocybin mushrooms, and lysergic acid diethylamide.ResultsThe findings reveal that the subjective experience with ibogaine has similarities with other psychedelic substances, but also important differences. These include very strong and unpleasant physical effects as well as, at least in this patient population, a very difficult and ..
Al-Imam, A. (2017). Could Hallucinogens Induce Permanent Pupillary Changes in (Ab)users? A Case Report from New Zealand. Case Reports In Neurological Medicine
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1155/2017/2503762
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“An eighteen-year-old female patient of the Caucasian ethnicity from Australasia presented with a persistently dilated pupil causing her discomfort and occasional burning sensation when she is outdoors due to oversensitivity to sunlight. However, her pupillary reaction to light (pupillary light reflex) was intact. The patient is a known user of psychedelic substances (entheogens) including LSD, NBOMe, psilocybin, and DMT. The condition affects both eyes to the same extent. Thorough medical, neurological, and radiological examinations, including an EEG and an MRI of the head and neck region, were completely normal. All these tests failed to detect any pathophysiological or anatomical abnormalities. The patient is a known case of chronic endogenous depression in association with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, for which she is taking citalopram and Ritalin, respectively. There was neither a family history nor a similar congenital condition in her family.
Barbara Geller, M. D. (2017). Can Psilocybin Treat Severe Depression?. Nejm Journal Watch
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1056/NEJM-JW.NA45292
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“In 1970, the FDA categorized psilocybin as a Schedule 1 drug, largely because of its recreational uses, which include inducing spirituality and
Bouso, J. C., Pedrero-Pérez, E. J., Gandy, S., & Alcázar-Córcoles, M. Á. (2017). The factor structure of the Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ): Reply to Barrett & Griffiths (2016). Human Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/hup.2570
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“We appreciate the commentary by Barret and Griffiths (2016) regarding our Spanish version of the MEQ-30 (Bouso, Pedrero-Perez, Gandy, & Alcazar-Corcoles, 2016). First of all, we want to emphasize that in no parts of our manuscript did we state that our version is “more appropriate” than the English version, nor anything to suggest that our version is in some way superior. In fact, what we said was that “future studies should cover more culturally diverse samples, taking into account different study settings and incorporating a wider range of substances in order to define the most suitable MEQ factor structure.” Furthermore, in all parts of the manuscript referring to the three different rating scales analyzed by us, we viewed the MEQ as the most psychomet-rically solid, and the one that can offer the best guarantees of appropriate and reliable use. At the same time, we think that the development of a psychometric instrument is never complete and that it is always subject to review, and this should apply to any other scientific instrument or technique. In our psychometric analysis of the MEQ, we obtained a two-factor structure instead of four; though we found an eventual suprafactor (or a second order factor) where both components showed high saturations, as the 30 items did. In fact, if we compare carefully the two versions, we can see that they are not so different. As we state in our manuscript: “Our Factor 1 group the items belonging to the MacLean, Leoutsakos, Johnson, and Griffiths (2012) subscales Mystical, and Positive mood, excepting items 14 (Factor 1), and items 5 and 80 (Factor 2 of MacLean’s model); and our Factor 2 grouped the subscales Space/Time, and Ineffability plus items 5, 14, and 80 of MacLean’s model.” Regarding the low representation of high-dose experience in our sample and thus, the eventual limitation of the generalizability of the two-factor structure, as we also state in our manuscript, almost all of the items in our sample were scored above the median value, “so small discrepancies between our model and MacLean’s model probably do not lie in eventual low scores yielded by our sample.” However, although Barrett and Griffiths say in their commentary: “It is known that MEQ scores in controlled experimental psilocybin studies are dose-dependent (Griffiths et al., 2011),” in that paper, the MEQ was not used, but its previous version, the States of Consciousness Questionnaire (SCQ), that has 43 computable items, instead of 30, and 6 dimensions instead of 4. As far as we know, authors have not reported if the MEQ fit a dose-response effect. We are in agreement with Barrett and Griffiths when they assert that further studies are need to better characterize the factor structure of the MEQ, and this is something that we also assert throughout our manuscript, calling to the attention of the eventual reader that our version is just a preliminary proposal. In this sense, future studies with the MEQ should be geared towards obtaining a questionnaire that precisely could avoid a “factor structure [that] may vary in different settings,” as Barrett and Griffiths say in their commentary that may occur with the MEQ. On the contrary, what is needed is a questionnaire whose factorial structure does not vary when it is administered in different settings and with different psychedelic drugs and doses, varying only on its score. To follow that goal was the purpose of our work and, in that way, we offered in our paper a Spanish version of the MEQ, with preliminary psychometric properties obtained from a Spanish sample after taking ayahuasca. We do not encourage nor discourage the eventual reader to use our version but merely offer our psychometric analysis, describing how we reached our data, comparing our analysis to the methods used by other researchers, while discussing the limitations both of our study and of previous English versions in order that the eventual reader can have more data and information regarding how to use and interpret it. As Barrett and Griffiths said: “only a few of these questionnaires have undergone analysis with modern psychometric methods.” What we need are more studies in order to refine the techniques to make them as valid and reliable as possible. In that sense, studies in naturalistic settings like ours are necessary and complementary to laboratory studies (Barrett, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2015) and online surveys (MacLean et al., 2012).
Goyal, M. (2017). Use of ethnomedicinal plants for prophylaxis and management of postpartum complications among the Marwari community of Jodhpur District of Rajasthan. Food Quality And Safety
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1093/fqsafe/fyx013
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“In the course of examining the complete dose-response relationship for the behavioral effects of LSD in the cat, we discovered that, in addition to large increases in investigatory and hallucinatory-like responses, two behaviors, not previously reported, are emitted with a high probability under LSD. Beginning from a baseline of essentially zero in saline-treated animals, limb flicks and abortive grooming increase in frequency in direct relation to the dose of LSD administered (2.5, 10, 25 and 50 microgram/kg i.p.) and then decrease at higher doses (100 and 200 microgram/kg). Limb flicks are a species-specific behavior seen in normal cats almost exclusively in response to the presence of a foreign substance, such as water, on the hindpaw or forepaw. In abortive grooming, the cat orients to the body surfaces as if to groom but does not emit the consummatory grooming response (bite, lick or scratch), or emits the response in midair. These behaviors can serve as an animal behavior model for the actions of LSD and related hallucinogens in humans. The specificity of these behavioral changes is indicated by the fact that they are never seen in response to other classes of psychoactive drugs such as D-amphetamine, atropine, caffeine, and cholorpheniramine. They are, however, elicited by compounds such as psilocybin which are structurally and functionally related to LSD. The validity of the model is based on evidence indicating that it is: specific to hallucinogens, dose dependent, observed in a dose range effective in humans, parallels the major parameters of the actions of LSD in humans (see following paper), sensitive, robust, reliable, quantifiable and easy to score.
Kim, H., Choi, H. S., Kim, S. K., Lee, B., & Choi, Y. (2017). Antigen-responsive molecular sensor enables real-time tumor-specific imaging. Theranostics
Plain numerical DOI: 10.7150/thno.16647
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“The psychosis associated with schizophrenia is characterized by alterations in sensory processing and perception1,2. Some antipsychotic drugs were identified by their high affinity for serotonin 5-HT2A receptors (2AR)3,4. Drugs that interact with metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR) also show potential for the treatment of schizophrenia5-7. The effects of hallucinogenic drugs, such as psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), require the 2AR8-10 and resemble some of the core symptoms of schizophrenia10-12. Here we show that the mGluR2 interacts via specific transmembrane helix domains with the 2AR, a member of an unrelated G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family, to form functional complexes in brain cortex. The 2AR/mGluR2 complex triggers unique cellular responses when targeted by hallucinogenic drugs, and activation of mGluR2 abolishes hallucinogen specific signalling and behavioural responses. In postmortem human brain from untreated schizophrenic subjects, the 2AR is up-regulated and the mGluR2 is down-regulated, a pattern that could predispose to psychosis. These regulatory changes suggest that the 2AR/mGluR2 complex may be involved in the altered cortical processes of schizophrenia, and represents a promising new target for the treatment of psychosis.
2016
Dijkstra, F. M., Jacobs, G. E., & Cohen, A. F. (2016). Question-based Drug Development for psilocybin. The Lancet Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30214-0
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“Comments on an article Robin Carhart-Harris et al. (see record 2016-25160-001). Robin Carhart-Harris and colleagues conclude that there is preliminary support for the safety and efficacy of psilocybin for treatment-resistant unipolar depression. This finding is important because more effective pharmacological treatments with acceptable side-effects are urgently needed for patients suffering from depression. We support the limitations the authors have pointed out about the study population and trial design. We also recognize the paucity of well-designed trials in psychiatry that are based on the principles of clinical pharmacology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
Nichols, D. E. D. E. E., Barker Psychedelics, E. L., Nichols, D. E. D. E. E., Barker Psychedelics, E. L., & Nichols, D. E. D. E. E. (2016). Psychedelics. Pharmacological Reviews
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1124/pr.115.011478
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“Psychedelics (serotonergic hallucino- gens) are powerful psychoactive substances that alter perception and mood and affect numerous cognitive processes. They are generally considered physiologi- cally safe and do not lead to dependence or addiction. Their origin predates written history, and they were employed by early cultures in many sociocultural and ritual contexts. After the virtually contemporaneous discovery of (5R,8R)-(+)-lysergic acid-N,N-diethylamide (LSD)-25 and the identification of serotonin in the brain, early research focused intensively on the possibility that LSD and other psychedelics had a serotonergic basis for their action. Today there is a consensus that psychedelics are agonists or partial agonists at brain serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptors, with particular importance on those expressed on apical dendrites of neocortical pyramidal cells in layer V. Several useful rodent models have been developed over the years to help unravel the neurochemical correlates of serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptor activation in the brain, and a variety of imaging techniques have been employed to identify key brain areas that are directly affected by psychedelics. Recent and exciting developments in the field have occurred in clinical research, where several double-blind placebo-controlled phase 2 studies of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy in patients with cancer-related psychosocial distress have demonstrated unprecedented positive relief of anxiety and depression. Two small pilot studies of psilocybin- assisted psychotherapy also have shown positive benefit in treating both alcohol and nicotine addiction. Recently, blood oxygen level–dependent functional magnetic resonance imaging and magnetoencephalography have been employed for in vivo brain imaging in humans after administration of a psychedelic, and results indicate that intravenously administered psilocybin and LSD produce decreases in oscillatory power in areas of the brain’s default mode network.
Neuroscience, H., Carhart-harris, R. L., Leech, R., Hellyer, P. J., Shanahan, M., Feilding, A., et al. (2016). Commentary: The entropic brain: a theory of conscious states informed by neuroimaging research with psychedelic drugs. Frontiers In Human Neuroscience
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00020
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“Entropy is a dimensionless quantity that is used for measuring uncertainty about the state of a system but it can also imply physical qualities, where high entropy is synonymous with high disorder. Entropy is applied here in the context of states of consciousness and their associated neurodynamics, with a particular focus on the psychedelic state. The psychedelic state is considered an exemplar of a primitive or primary state of consciousness that preceded the development of modern, adult, human, normal waking consciousness. Based on neuroimaging data with psilocybin, a classic psychedelic drug, it is argued that the defining feature of “primary states” is elevated entropy in certain aspects of brain function, such as the repertoire of functional connectivity motifs that form and fragment across time. Indeed, since there is a greater repertoire of connectivity motifs in the psychedelic state than in normal waking consciousness, this implies that primary states may exhibit “criticality,” i.e., the property of being poised at a “critical” point in a transition zone between order and disorder where certain phenomena such as power-law scaling appear. Moreover, if primary states are critical, then this suggests that entropy is suppressed in normal waking consciousness, meaning that the brain operates just below criticality. It is argued that this entropy suppression furnishes normal waking consciousness with a constrained quality and associated metacognitive functions, including reality-testing and self-awareness. It is also proposed that entry into primary states depends on a collapse of the normally highly organized activity within the default-mode network (DMN) and a decoupling between the DMN and the medial temporal lobes (which are normally significantly coupled). These hypotheses can be tested by examining brain activity and associated cognition in other candidate primary states such as rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and early psychosis and comparing these with non-primary states such as normal waking consciousness and the anaesthetized state. © 2014 Carhart-Harris, Leech, Hellyer, Shanahan, Feilding, Tagliazucchi, Chialvo and Nutt.
Davenport, W. J. (2016). Psychedelic and nonpsychedelic LSD and psilocybin for cluster headache. CMAJ
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1503/cmaj.1150082
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Kyzar, E. J., & Kalueff, A. V. (2016). Exploring Hallucinogen Pharmacology and Psychedelic Medicine with Zebrafish Models. Zebrafish
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1089/zeb.2016.1251
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“After decades of sociopolitical obstacles, the field of psychiatry is experiencing a revived interest in the use of hallucinogenic agents to treat brain disorders. Along with the use of ketamine for depression, recent pilot studies have highlighted the efficacy of classic serotonergic hallucinogens, such as lysergic acid diethylamide and psilocybin, in treating addiction, post-traumatic stress disorder, and anxiety. However, many basic pharmacological and toxicological questions remain unanswered with regard to these compounds. In this study, we discuss psychedelic medicine as well as the behavioral and toxicological effects of hallucinogenic drugs in zebrafish. We emphasize this aquatic organism as a model ideally suited to assess both the potential toxic and therapeutic effects of major known classes of hallucinogenic compounds. In addition, novel drugs with hallucinogenic properties can be efficiently screened using zebrafish models. Well-designed preclinical studies utilizing zebrafish can contribute to the reemerging treatment paradigm of psychedelic medicine, leading to new avenues of clinical exploration for psychiatric disorders.
Stebelska, K., & Labuz, K. (2016). Psilocybin as an Inducer of Ego Death and Similar Experiences of Religious Provenance. In Neuropathology of Drug Addictions and Substance Misuse
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800212-4.00082-0
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“The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the impact of hallucinogenic psilocybin on religious-type emotionality related to ego disintegration. Psilocybin as a typical hallucinogen evokes alternations of visual perception (enhances a development of pseudo-hallucinations, phantom visual perception, or hypnagogic experiences). These visual phenomena may be inspiring and are claimed to enhance aesthetic appreciation. Additionally the hallucinogen induces transient impairment of cognitive functions and psychological regression comparable to the signs of ego blurring and dissociative phenomena. The psilocybin effects, initially euphoric, may become emotionally perceived as anxious and unpleasant. However, if religiously interpreted, the emotional experiences along with cognitive deficits may lead to the intuitive or culture-bound deduction of the idea of divine being. This property makes psilocybin applicable as an enhancer of mystical-type experiences and possibly helpful in religious indoctrination. Metaphoric language and declarative opposition to materialism actually disclose that religious groups and formal churches already have features of a corporation, in terms of sociology and economy; act in agreement with an ideological doctrine; and are driven by principles of economy. If implementation of any psychoactive substance to religious ceremonies is considered it should be taken into account that such business entities probably won’t hesitate to harm by the use of hazardous practices involving the application of psychoactive compounds in combination with techniques of manipulation. Therefore the connection between the drug-induced experiences similar to schizophrenia-like psychosis and religious-type emotionality is emphasized in this chapter.
Nichols, D. E. D. E. E., Barker Psychedelics, E. L., Nichols, D. E. D. E. E., Barker Psychedelics, E. L., & Nichols, D. E. D. E. E. (2016). Psychedelics. Pharmacological Reviews
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1124/pr.115.011478
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“Psychedelics (serotonergic hallucino- gens) are powerful psychoactive substances that alter perception and mood and affect numerous cognitive processes. They are generally considered physiologi- cally safe and do not lead to dependence or addiction. Their origin predates written history, and they were employed by early cultures in many sociocultural and ritual contexts. After the virtually contemporaneous discovery of (5R,8R)-(+)-lysergic acid-N,N-diethylamide (LSD)-25 and the identification of serotonin in the brain, early research focused intensively on the possibility that LSD and other psychedelics had a serotonergic basis for their action. Today there is a consensus that psychedelics are agonists or partial agonists at brain serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptors, with particular importance on those expressed on apical dendrites of neocortical pyramidal cells in layer V. Several useful rodent models have been developed over the years to help unravel the neurochemical correlates of serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptor activation in the brain, and a variety of imaging techniques have been employed to identify key brain areas that are directly affected by psychedelics. Recent and exciting developments in the field have occurred in clinical research, where several double-blind placebo-controlled phase 2 studies of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy in patients with cancer-related psychosocial distress have demonstrated unprecedented positive relief of anxiety and depression. Two small pilot studies of psilocybin- assisted psychotherapy also have shown positive benefit in treating both alcohol and nicotine addiction. Recently, blood oxygen level–dependent functional magnetic resonance imaging and magnetoencephalography have been employed for in vivo brain imaging in humans after administration of a psychedelic, and results indicate that intravenously administered psilocybin and LSD produce decreases in oscillatory power in areas of the brain’s default mode network.
Nutt, D. (2016). Psilocybin for anxiety and depression in cancer care? Lessons from the past and prospects for the future. Journal Of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881116675754
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“This special issue of the Journal of Psychopharmacology contains two landmark studies – the most rigorous controlled trials to date using the psychedelic drug psilocybin, the active ingredient of magic mushrooms (Griffiths et al., 2016; Ross et al., 2016). These were conducted in patients with anxiety and depression and existential distress in the context of having a diagnosis of cancer, and they showed that a single psychedelic experience could produce profound and enduring mental health benefits.
Tylš, F., Páleníček, T., Kadeřábek, L., Lipski, M., Kubešová, A., & Horáček, J. (2016). Sex differences and serotonergic mechanisms in the behavioural effects of psilocin. Behavioural Pharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1097/FBP.0000000000000198
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“Psilocybin has recently attracted a great deal of attention as a clinical research and therapeutic tool. The aim of this paper is to bridge two major knowledge gaps regarding its behavioural pharmacology – sex differences and the underlying receptor mechanisms. We used psilocin (0.25, 1 and 4 mg/kg), an active metabolite of psilocybin, in two behavioural paradigms – the open-field test and prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the acoustic startle reaction. Sex differences were evaluated with respect to the phase of the female cycle. The contribution of serotonin receptors in the behavioural action was tested in male rats with selective serotonin receptor antagonists: 5-HT1A receptor antagonist (WAY100635 1 mg/kg), 5-HT2A receptor antagonist (MDL100907 0.5 mg/kg), 5-HT2B receptor antagonist (SB215505 1 mg/kg) and 5-HT2C receptor antagonist (SB242084 1 mg/kg). Psilocin induced dose-dependent inhibition of locomotion and suppression of normal behaviour in rats (behavioural serotonin syndrome, impaired PPI). The effects were more pronounced in male rats than in females. The inhibition of locomotion was normalized by 5-HT1A and 5-HT2B/C antagonists; however, PPI was not affected significantly by these antagonists. Our findings highlight an important issue of sex-specific reactions to psilocin and that apart from 5-HT2A-mediated effects 5-HT1A and 5-HT2C/B receptors also play an important role. These findings have implications for recent clinical trials.
Kaprinis, K., Symeonidis, C., Papakonstantinou, E., Tsinopoulos, I., & Dimitrakos, S. A. (2016). Decreased hyaluronan concentration during primary rhegmatogenous retinal detachment. European Journal Of Ophthalmology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.5301/ejo.5000802
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“Background: Hallucinogenic fungi have been used in divinatory or religious contexts. Today the use to enhance emotions, to disconnect from reality. There are 2 groups. 1. Mushrooms containing ibotenic acid muscimol like A. muscaria, A. pantherina. 2. Mushrooms containing psilocybin. Case presentation: A 28 year old man was admitted to our ER. due to confusion, irritability.Occured after ingestion of mushrooms collected by himself. On admission, he had lacerated scalp wound in the occipital region after head trauma. The biochemical and hematological parameters were normal. A Brain CT scan was negative to injury. His girlfriend arrived in ER. with mushrooms, they were like mushrooms in (Figures 2) and with the help of the mycologist the diagnosis was confirmed Amanita Pantherina Toxicity. Discussion: The pantherina contain ibotenic acid muscimol. Ibotenic acid resembles glutamic acid and is an agonist at central glutamic acid receptors; its decarboxylated derivative, muscimol,is an agonist (GABA) receptors. The ingestion of these mushroom group produce ethanol-like intoxication and jerking movements, hallucinations may be accompanied by dysarthria, ataxia, muscle cramps and may persist for 8 hours. Symptoms typically occur within 90 minutes of ingestion. In ER. benzodiazepines used for sedation, to treat hallucinations, and seizures. Gastric lavage and activated charcoal used within 1 hour of ingestion.
Pokorny, T., Preller, K. H., Kraehenmann, R., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2016). Modulatory effect of the 5-HT1A agonist buspirone and the mixed non-hallucinogenic 5-HT1A/2A agonist ergotamine on psilocybin-induced psychedelic experience. European Neuropsychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2016.01.005
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“The mixed serotonin (5-HT) 1A/2A/2B/2C/6/7 receptor agonist psilocybin dose-dependently induces an altered state of consciousness (ASC) that is characterized by changes in sensory perception, mood, thought, and the sense of self. The psychological effects of psilocybin are primarily mediated by 5-HT2A receptor activation. However, accumulating evidence suggests that 5-HT1A or an interaction between 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors may contribute to the overall effects of psilocybin. Therefore, we used a double-blind, counterbalanced, within-subject design to investigate the modulatory effects of the partial 5-HT1A agonist buspirone (20 mg p.o.) and the non-hallucinogenic 5-HT2A/1A agonist ergotamine (3 mg p.o.) on psilocybin-induced (170 μg/kg p.o.) psychological effects in two groups (n=19, n=17) of healthy human subjects. Psychological effects were assessed using the Altered State of Consciousness (5D-ASC) rating scale. Buspirone significantly reduced the 5D-ASC main scale score for Visionary Restructuralization (VR) (p<0.001), which was mostly driven by a reduction of the VR item cluster scores for elementary and complex visual hallucinations. Further, buspirone also reduced the main scale score for Oceanic Boundlessness (OB) including derealisation and depersonalisation phenomena at a trend level (p=0.062), whereas ergotamine did not show any effects on the psilocybin-induced 5D-ASC main scale scores. The present finding demonstrates that buspirone exerts inhibitory effects on psilocybin-induced effects, presumably via 5-HT1A receptor activation, an interaction between 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors, or both. The data suggest that the modulation of 5-HT1A receptor activity may be a useful target in the treatment of visual hallucinations in different psychiatric and neurological diseases.
Kang, D., Curchitser, E. N., & Rosati, A. (2016). Seasonal Variability of the Gulf Stream Kinetic Energy. Journal Of Physical Oceanography
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1175/JPO-D-15-0235.1
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“Increasing evidence suggests a link between attention, working memory, serotonin (5-HT) and prefrontal cortex activity. In an attempt to tease out the relationship between these elements, this study tested the effects of the hallucinogenic 5-HT1A/2A receptor agonist psilocybin alone and after pretreatment with the 5-HT2A antagonist ketanserin on multiple object tracking and spatial working memory, in eight healthy human volunteers. Psilocybin significantly reduced attentional tracking ability, but had no significant effect on spatial working memory, suggesting a functional dissociation between the two tasks. In line with the 5-HT1A receptor’s known role in modulating prefrontal activity, pretreatment with ketanserin did not attenuate the effect of psilocybin on attentional performance, suggesting a primary involvement of the 5-HT1A receptor in the observed deficit. Based on physiological and pharmacological data, we propose that this impaired attentional performance may reflect reduced ability to suppress or ignore distracting stimuli rather than reduced attentional capacity.
Carbonaro, T. M., Bradstreet, M. P., Barrett, F. S., MacLean, K. A., Jesse, R., Johnson, M. W., & Griffiths, R. R. (2016). Survey study of challenging experiences after ingesting psilocybin mushrooms: Acute and enduring positive and negative consequences. Journal Of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881116662634
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“Aims: Although classic hallucinogens have relatively low physiological toxicity and do not produce compulsive drug seeking, they can produce adverse psychological reactions (i.e., ‘bad trips’). An online survey study sought to better characterize such experiences. Methods: Participants completed an anonymous online survey in reference to their most challenging experience after ingesting psilocybin mushrooms. The experience was required not to have occurred in the context of a research study. The questionnaire assessed the phenomenology of the experience. Results: There were 1853 participants (mean age 29 yrs; 81% male; 50% college or graduate degree). 39% rated the experience as among the 5 most challenging experiences of their lives, and 34% rated the experience as among the 5 most meaningful of their lives. Scores on the Challenging Experience Questionnaire showed a reasonably high correlation with ratings of difficulty of experience (r = 0.516), but not with ratings of the degree of spiritual significance (r = 0.125). In contrast, scores on the Mystical Experience Questionnaire correlated moderately highly with spiritual significance ratings (r = 0.658) but not with degree of difficulty (r = 0.198). Consistent with known effects of psilocybin, participants endorsed visual effects (61%) and auditory (23%) and visual (21%) synesthesia. Anomalous experiences were endorsed, including: interactions with entities/persons not physically present (29%), convincing experiences of prior lives (10%), and experiences of Jamais vu (17%). 11% reported that they put themselves or others at risk for physical harm during the experience. Conclusions: Participants completed a survey about their most challenging experience after psilocybin. Scores of challenging experience and mystical experience showed different patterns of correlations. Visual and auditory effects and unusual phenomenology were reported.
Tófoli, L. F., & de Araujo, D. B. (2016). Treating Addiction. Imaging The Addicted Brain
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2016.06.005
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“© 2016 Elsevier Inc.Despite reports of apparent benefits, social and political pressure beginning in the late 1960s effectively banned scientific inquiry into psychedelic substances. Covert examination of psychedelics persisted through the 1990s; the turn of the century and especially the past 10 years, however, has seen a resurgent interest in psychedelic substances (eg, LSD, ayahuasca, psilocybin). This chapter outlines relevant EEG and brain imaging studies evaluating the effects of psychedelics on the brain. This chapter also reviews evidence of the use of psychedelics as adjunct therapy for a number of psychiatric and addictive disorders. In particular, psychedelics appear to have efficacy in treating depression and alcohol-use disorders.
Preller, K. H., Pokorny, T., Hock, A., Kraehenmann, R., Stämpfli, P., Seifritz, E., et al. (2016). Effects of serotonin 2A/1A receptor stimulation on social exclusion processing. Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Sciences
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1524187113
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“Social ties are crucial for physical and mental health. However, psychiatric patients frequently encounter social rejection. Moreover, an increased reactivity to social exclusion influences the development, progression, and treatment of various psychiatric disorders. Nevertheless, the neuromodulatory substrates of rejection experiences are largely unknown. The preferential serotonin (5-HT) 2A/1A receptor agonist, psilocybin (Psi), reduces the processing of negative stimuli, but whether 5-HT2A/1A receptor stimulation modulates the processing of negative social interactions remains unclear. Therefore, this double-blind, randomized, counterbalanced, cross-over study assessed the neural response to social exclusion after the acute administration of Psi (0.215 mg/kg) or placebo (Pla) in 21 healthy volunteers by using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and resting-state magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). Participants reported a reduced feeling of social exclusion after Psi vs. Pla administration, and the neural response to social exclusion was decreased in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and the middle frontal gyrus, key regions for social pain processing. The reduced neural response in the dACC was significantly correlated with Psi-induced changes in selfprocessing and decreased aspartate (Asp) content. In conclusion, 5-HT2A/1A receptor stimulation with psilocybin seems to reduce social pain processing in association with changes in self-experience. These findings may be relevant to the normalization of negative social interaction processing in psychiatric disorders characterized by increased rejection sensitivity. The current results also emphasize the importance of 5-HT2A/1A receptor subtypes and the Asp system in the control of social functioning, and as prospective targets in the treatment of sociocognitive impairments in psychiatric illnesses.
Majić, T., Schmidt, T. T., & Hermle, L. (2016). Flashbacks und anhaltende Wahrnehmungsstörungen nach Einnahme von serotonergen Halluzinogenen. In Handbuch Psychoaktive Substanzen
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-55214-4_63-1
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“Serotonerge Halluzinogene wie LSD und Psilocybin besitzen kein abh{ä}ngigkeitserzeugendes Potenzial und zeigen eine niedrige Toxizit{ä}t. Sie stehen jedoch im Verdacht, das Auftreten von St{ö}rungsbildern beg{ü}nstigen zu k{ö}nnen, die die akute Wirkung der Substanz {ü}berdauern oder erst verz{ö}gert auftreten. Zu diesen z{ä}hlt vor allem die Gruppe der Flashbacks und der anhaltenden Wahrnehmungsst{ö}rung nach Einnahme von Halluzinogenen (HPPD), die in internationalen Klassifikationssystemen operationalisiert wird. In diesem Artikel konzeptuelle, klinische und epidemiologische Aspekte dieser Ph{ä}nomene dargestellt, um einen Beitrag zur Einsch{ä}tzung des Risikopotenzials dieser Substanzen geben zu k{ö}nnen.
Hoffman, J. (2016). A Dose of a Hallucinogen From a ‘Magic Mushroom,’ and Then Lasting Peace. The New York Times
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“Two studies used psilocybin to see if the drug could reduce depression and anxiety in cancer patients. The results were striking.
Lieberman, J. A., & Shalev, D. (2016). Back to the future: Research renewed on the clinical utility of psychedelic drugs. Journal of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881116675755
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“Two articles in this issue, Ross et al. and Griffiths et al., describe the use of psilocybin in the treatment of depression and anxiety in cancer patients. In doing so, they contribute to a resur-gence of interest in research on psychedelic medications that was abruptly banned by the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 because of their popularization and excessive recreational use (Nichols, 2016; Vollenweider and Kometer, 2010). Psilocybin is a plant alkaloid derived from the Psilocybe genus of mushrooms that has been used for centuries, if not millennia, by indigenous cultures for ritualized healing and religious purposes. It was sci-entifically classified as a psychotomimetic (mimicking psycho-sis) in medical parlance or psychedelic (mind expanding) in the cultural terms of the 1960s, following the discovery of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) by a Sandoz (now part of Novartis) chemist in 1943 (Hofmann et al., 1958; Nichols, 2016). In the 1950s and 1960s, there was robust scientific interest in psychedelic compounds, and they were studied as tools to under-stand the neurobiology of mental functions and as therapeutic agents for mental disorders, including substance abuse, depres-sion, personality disorders (e.g., antisocial), and palliative care, and as adjuncts to psychotherapy (Nichols, 2016; Unger, 1963). Psychedelics were also studied for more nefarious purposes, such as brainwashing and prisoner interrogation (Johnson et al., 2008). However, the scientific investigation of this drug class was overshadowed by their widespread recreational use and associa-tion with the cultural turmoil and anti-Vietnam War politics of the period. Consequently, following the Controlled Substances legis-lation of the United States, psilocybin and other psychedelics were classified as schedule I drugs by the United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances in 1971 (Nutt et al., 2013). Schedule I substances are considered to have high abuse potential, poor safety, and no therapeutic indication (Rucker, 2015). Criminalization of psychedelic drugs effectively pre-vented further research into their potential experimental and therapeutic uses for several decades. Although legal restrictions on psychedelic compounds have been stringent, the evidence that psilocybin causes harm is scant. In a US cohort of 130,152 adults from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, among whom 21,967 reported lifetime psychedelic use, there was not an increased prevalence of mental illness or suicide in psychedelic use cohorts (Krebs and Johansen, 2013). In fact, lifetime use of psychedelics was associated with increased measures of psychologic well-being (Hendricks et al., 2015). In a review prepared for the Dutch Ministry of Health by a government body tasked with assessment and monitoring of drugs, psilocybin-containing mushrooms were concluded to have minimal potential for harm to either individual or public health and no evidence for dependence or withdrawal (van Amsterdam et al., 2011). Psychologic adverse effects such as anxiety occur, but are time limited. More serious adverse events including self-harm under the influence of psychedelic compounds or prolonged psychotic symptoms are rare, and may be limited to a subset of individuals who are vulnerable to such pathologic reactions (Johnson et al., 2008). Over the past decade, there has been a resurgence of scientific interest in psychedelic drugs. In this context, the studies reported in this issue add to this renewed interest and growing body of work. Griffiths et al. (2016) found a substantial therapeutic effect of two drug administrations (low and higher doses) in a crossover design on the target symptoms of anxiety and depression in a heterogeneous group of cancer patients with comorbid psychopa-thology that appeared to be dose related and persisted over the six-month duration of the study. The therapeutic effect was closely tied to the mystical nature of the patients’ experiences. In a similar study, Ross et al. (2016) administered psilocybin or active placebo (niacin) to patients with life-threatening cancer, and assessed effects on anxiety and depression, as well as mysti-cal experience and quality of life. They found a robust therapeu-tic effect on the target symptoms that was correlated with intensity of mystical experience and persisted for the six-and-a-half-month follow-up period. Both studies had no serious and minimal adverse effects. These studies reflect the therapeutic promise of psilocybin and related compounds for clinical applications such as cancer-associated psychopathology for which treatments of limited effi-cacy currently exist. At the same time, they also reveal large gaps in our knowledge that warrant further research in order to exploit fully the value of this novel class of medicinal compounds. The major methodologic limitations of the studies are their crossover Back to the future: Research renewed on the clinical utility of psychedelic drugs
Carhart-harris, R. L., Bolstridge, M., Rucker, J., Day, C. M. J., Erritzoe, D., Kaelen, M., et al. (2016). Psilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression : an open-label feasibility study. Lancet Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30065-7
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“Background Psilocybin is a serotonin receptor agonist that occurs naturally in some mushroom species. Recent studies have assessed the therapeutic potential of psilocybin for various conditions, including end-of-life anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and smoking and alcohol dependence, with promising preliminary results. Here, we aimed to investigate the feasibility, safety, and efficacy of psilocybin in patients with unipolar treatment-resistant depression. Methods In this open-label feasibility trial, 12 patients (six men, six women) with moderate-to-severe, unipolar, treatment-resistant major depression received two oral doses of psilocybin (10 mg and 25 mg, 7 days apart) in a supportive setting. There was no control group. Psychological support was provided before, during, and after each session. The primary outcome measure for feasibility was patient-reported intensity of psilocybin’s effects. Patients were monitored for adverse reactions during the dosing sessions and subsequent clinic and remote follow-up. Depressive symptoms were assessed with standard assessments from 1 week to 3 months after treatment, with the 16-item Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptoms (QIDS) serving as the primary efficacy outcome. This trial is registered with ISRCTN, number ISRCTN14426797. Findings Psilocybin’s acute psychedelic effects typically became detectable 30–60 min after dosing, peaked 2–3 h after dosing, and subsided to negligible levels at least 6 h after dosing. Mean self-rated intensity (on a 0–1 scale) was 0·51 (SD 0·36) for the low-dose session and 0·75 (SD 0·27) for the high-dose session. Psilocybin was well tolerated by all of the patients, and no serious or unexpected adverse events occurred. The adverse reactions we noted were transient anxiety during drug onset (all patients), transient confusion or thought disorder (nine patients), mild and transient nausea (four patients), and transient headache (four patients). Relative to baseline, depressive symptoms were markedly reduced 1 week (mean QIDS difference −11·8, 95% CI −9·15 to −14·35, p=0·002, Hedges’ g=3·1) and 3 months (−9·2, 95% CI −5·69 to −12·71, p=0·003, Hedges’ g=2) after high-dose treatment. Marked and sustained improvements in anxiety and anhedonia were also noted. Interpretation This study provides preliminary support for the safety and efficacy of psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression and motivates further trials, with more rigorous designs, to better examine the therapeutic potential of this approach. Funding Medical Research Council.
Ross, S., Bossis, A., Guss, J., Agin-Liebes, G., Malone, T., Cohen, B., et al. (2016). Rapid and sustained symptom reduction following psilocybin treatment for anxiety and depression in patients with life-threatening cancer: A randomized controlled trial. Journal Of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881116675512
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“Abstract Background: Clinically significant anxiety and depression are common in patients with cancer, and are associated with poor psychiatric and medical outcomes. Historical and recent research suggests a role for psilocybin to treat cancer-related anxiety and depression. Methods: In this double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial, 29 patients with cancer-related anxiety and depression were randomly assigned and received treatment with single-dose psilocybin (0.3 mg/kg) or niacin, both in conjunction with psychotherapy. The primary outcomes were anxiety and depression assessed between groups prior to the crossover at 7 weeks. Results: Prior to the crossover, psilocybin produced immediate, substantial, and sustained improvements in anxiety and depression and led to decreases in cancer-related demoralization and hopelessness, improved spiritual wellbeing, and increased quality of life. At the 6.5-month follow- up, psilocybin was associated with enduring anxiolytic and anti-depressant effects (approximately 60–80% of participants continued with clinically significant reductions in depression or anxiety), sustained benefits in existential distress and quality of life, as well as improved attitudes towards death. The psilocybin-induced mystical experience mediated the therapeutic effect of psilocybin on anxiety and depression. Conclusions: In conjunction with psychotherapy, single moderate-dose psilocybin produced rapid, robust and enduring anxiolytic and anti-depressant effects in patients with cancer-related psychological distress.
Buchborn, T., Grecksch, G., Dieterich, D. C., & Höllt, V. (2016). Tolerance to Lysergic Acid Diethylamide: Overview, Correlates, and Clinical Implications. In Neuropathology of Drug Addictions and Substance Misuse
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800212-4.00079-0
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“The first reports on tolerance to the serotonergic hallucinogen lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) were published half a century ago, yet hitherto, a systematic review on this topic is not available. In this chapter, we discuss tolerance to LSD with regard to its psychedelic and somatic effects in humans, as well as selected behaviors in animals. In humans, mental tolerance to LSD substantially manifests 24h after its first administration and reaches a maximum by around the fourth day. Once established, tolerance cannot be overcome even if the initial dose is quadrupled. Mental tolerance to LSD generalizes to psilocybin and mescaline but not to tetrahydrocannabinol or amphetamine. As to LSD’s somatic effects, mental tolerance most reliably is accompanied by tolerance to mydriasis. Five days of abstinence is sufficient for tolerance to be reversed; symptoms of withdrawal are not encountered. In animals, LSD-induced shaking behavior, limb flicking, and hallucinogenic pausing are undermined by tolerance, too; the first-mentioned behaviors, for instance, are subject to tachyphylaxis. Mechanistically, pharmacodynamic adaptations of serotonin 5-HT2Aand/or (downstream) glutamate receptors are likely to account for tolerance; a learning-related precipitation, however, has also been described. The rapid onset of mental tolerance probably is a main reason LSD generally is not taken on an everyday basis by humans. Given its rapid reversal, on the other hand, a once-per-week abuse cannot be excluded.
Smith, K. R. (2016). Modeling the flesh of god: Semantic hyperpriming and the Teonancátl cults of Mexico. Neuroquantology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.14704/nq.2016.14.2.944
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“The ritualistic use of the ancient psychoactive sacrament teonanacatl, or “The Flesh of God,” represents an integral aspect of pre-colonial Mesoamerican culture and continues, in various syncretic forms, to this day. Providing a brief history of various tribes of Mexico known to utilize Psilocibe species within a shamanic context, focusing primarily on the Mazatec people of Oaxaca, this paper attempts to utilize contemporary cognitive research of psilocybin to better understand and contextualize the ancient teonanacatl ceremony; specifically, research into psilocybin’s induction of the hyperpriming state of cognition. Hyperpriming, or indirect semantic priming, is characterized by its expansive branched hierarchical associative structure within the semantic network and presents us with a valid and useful explanatory framework with which to interpret many of the reported psychological, linguistic, and perceptual effects underlying the traditional teonanacatl ceremony.Copyright © 2016, E-FLOW PDF NeuroQuantology. All rights reserved.
Stebelska, K. (2016). Assays for Detection of Fungal Hallucinogens Such as Psilocybin and Psilocin. In Neuropathology of Drug Addictions and Substance Misuse
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800212-4.00084-4
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“Methods applicable to the detection of hallucinogenic indole compounds, namely psilocybin, psilocin, and related molecules, that have been developed so far for purposes of mycological research, toxicological studies, or forensic investigations are described in this chapter. The most current literature as well as some interesting older publications are cited, providing a historical overview of the subject. Methods of qualitative and quantitative analysis are presented. Additionally, preliminary purification steps and sample treatment before the exact quantitative determination are proposed. The methods described utilized various analytical techniques for the measurement of psilocybin/psilocin content in the analyzed material, including capillary electrophoresis, chemiluminescence detection systems, high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical, ultraviolet, or fluorescence detection systems, gas chromatography, and liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The methods developed for simultaneous determination of several commonly abused psychoactive substances along with psilocin/psilocybin are also mentioned.
Tófoli, L. F., & de Araujo, D. B. (2016). Treating Addiction: Perspectives from EEG and Imaging Studies on Psychedelics. In International Review of Neurobiology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2016.06.005
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“Despite reports of apparent benefits, social and political pressure beginning in the late 1960s effectively banned scientific inquiry into psychedelic substances. Covert examination of psychedelics persisted through the 1990s; the turn of the century and especially the past 10 years, however, has seen a resurgent interest in psychedelic substances (eg, LSD, ayahuasca, psilocybin). This chapter outlines relevant EEG and brain imaging studies evaluating the effects of psychedelics on the brain. This chapter also reviews evidence of the use of psychedelics as adjunct therapy for a number of psychiatric and addictive disorders. In particular, psychedelics appear to have efficacy in treating depression and alcohol-use disorders.
Zhuk, O., Jasicka-Misiak, I., Poliwoda, A., Kazakova, A., Godovan, V. V., Halama, M., et al. (2016). NIH Public Access. Journal Of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/hup
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“Anticholinergic toxicity is a common problem in the elderly. It has many effects ranging from dry mouth, constipation, and visual impairments to confusion, delirium, and severe cognitive decline. The toxicity is often the result of the cumulative anticholinergic burden of multiple prescription medications and metabolites rather than of a single compound. The management of elderly patients, particularly those suffering from dementia, should therefore aim to reduce the use of medications with anticholinergic effects.
Jennifer Graham Deseret News,. (2016). Why some professionals hope to prescribe party drugs
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“Medical marijuana is just the beginning.\r\n\r\n\r\nAs medical professionals look for ways to prescribe fewer opioids, some are hoping they will soon be able to prescribe street drugs like Ecstasy and psilocybin to treat patients with post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety and cancer.\r\n\r\n\r\nThat would require a radical change of policy for the U.S. Department of Drug Enforcement, which says those drugs and other psychedelics have “high potential for abuse” and “no currently accepted medical use.”\r\n\r\n\r\nBut the growing acceptance of medical marijuana, now legal in 28 states, has energized people who believe there is healing potential in so-called “party drugs” if they are prescribed carefully. Among them is a South Carolina veteran whose struggle with PTSD resolved with use of Ecstasy, a synthetic drug also known as Molly. “It changed my life,” C.J. Hardin told journalist Dave Phillips of The New York Times.
Howland, R. H. (2016). Antidepressant, Antipsychotic, and Hallucinogen Drugs for the Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders: A Convergence at the Serotonin-2A Receptor. Journal Of Psychosocial Nursing And Mental Health Services
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3928/02793695-20160616-09
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“Antidepressant, atypical antipsy- chotic, and hallucinogen drugs mediate their actions in part by interactions with the serotonin-2A (5HT2A) receptor. Serotonergic hal- lucinogen drugs, such as psilocybin, bind most potently as agonists at the 5HT2A receptor, producing profound changes in perception, mood, and cog- nition. Some of these drugs have been or are currently being investigated in small Phase 2 studies for depres- sion, alcoholism, smoking cessation, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress dis- order. However, unlike the synergistic effects of combining antidepressant and atypical antipsychotic drugs, the potential therapeutic effects of hal- lucinogen drugs may be attenuated by the concurrent use of these medi- cations because antidepressant and atypical antipsychotic drugs desen- sitize and/or down-regulate 5HT2A receptors. This finding has important implications for optimizing the poten- tial therapeutic use of hallucinogen drugs in psychiatry. [Journal of Psycho- social Nursing and Mental Health Ser- vices, 54(7), 21-24.]
Krauze, E. (2016). México y Estados Unidos, vecinos distantes de nuevo. The New York Times
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.12.041
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“Recent evidence indicates that psilocybin with psychological support may be effective for treating depression. Some studies have found that patients with depression show heightened amygdala responses to fearful faces and there is reliable evidence that treatment with SSRIs attenuates amygdala responses (Ma, 2015). We hypothesised that amygdala responses to emotional faces would be altered post-treatment with psilocybin. In this open-label study, 20 individuals diagnosed with moderate to severe, treatment-resistant depression, underwent two separate dosing sessions with psilocybin. Psychological support was provided before, during and after these sessions and 19 completed fMRI scans one week prior to the first session and one day after the second and last. Neutral, fearful and happy faces were presented in the scanner and analyses focused on the amygdala. Group results revealed rapid and enduring improvements in depressive symptoms post psilocybin. Increased responses to fearful and happy faces were observed in the right amygdala post-treatment, and right amygdala increases to fearful versus neutral faces were predictive of clinical improvements at 1-week. Psilocybin with psychological support was associated with increased amygdala responses to emotional stimuli, an opposite effect to previous findings with SSRIs. This suggests fundamental differences in these treatments’ therapeutic actions, with SSRIs mitigating negative emotions and psilocybin allowing patients to confront and work through them. Based on the present results, we propose that psilocybin with psychological support is a treatment approach that potentially revives emotional responsiveness in depression, enabling patients to reconnect with their emotions. Trial registration ISRCTN, number ISRCTN14426797.
Griffiths, R. R., Johnson, M. W., Carducci, M. A., Umbricht, A., Richards, W. A., Richards, B. D., et al. (2016). Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer: A randomized double-blind trial. Journal Of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881116675513
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“Cancer patients often develop chronic, clinically significant symptoms of depression and anxiety. Previous studies suggest that psilocybin may decrease depression and anxiety in cancer patients. The effects of psilocybin were studied in 51 cancer patients with life-threatening diagnoses and symptoms of depression and/or anxiety. This randomized, double-blind, cross-over trial investigated the effects of a very low (placebo-like) dose (1 or 3 mg/70 kg) vs. a high dose (22 or 30 mg/70 kg) of psilocybin administered in counterbalanced sequence with 5 weeks between sessions and a 6-month follow-up. Instructions to participants and staff minimized expectancy effects. Participants, staff, and community observers rated participant moods, attitudes, and behaviors throughout the study. High-dose psilocybin produced large decreases in clinician- and self-rated measures of depressed mood and anxiety, along with increases in quality of life, life meaning, and optimism, and decreases in death anxiety. At 6-month follow-up, these changes were sustained, with about 80% of participants continuing to show clinically significant decreases in depressed mood and anxiety. Participants attributed improvements in attitudes about life/self, mood, relationships, and spirituality to the high-dose experience, with >80% endorsing moderately or greater increased well-being/life satisfaction. Community observer ratings showed corresponding changes. Mystical-type psilocybin experience on session day mediated the effect of psilocybin dose on therapeutic outcomes. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT00465595.
Hanks, J. B., & González-Maeso, J. (2016). Chapter 75 – Molecular and Cellular Basis of Hallucinogen Action. In Neuropathology of Drug Addictions and Substance Misuse
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800212-4.00075-3
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“The neuropsychological effects of naturally occurring hallucinogens have been recognized for millennia. Hallucinogens, which include naturally occurring compounds such as psilocybin and mescaline, as well as synthetic compounds such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), induce profound alterations of human consciousness, emotion, cognition, and mood. The discovery of LSD and the observation that LSD and the endogenous neurotransmitter serotonin share chemical and pharmacological profiles led to the suggestion that biogenic amines like serotonin were involved in the mechanism of action of hallucinogens as well as in psychotic mental disorders such as schizophrenia. Based on evidence from rodents and humans, the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor appears to be responsible for the hallucinogenic effects of tryptamine, ergoline, and phenethylamine hallucinogens. In this chapter, we review existing literature on the molecular and signaling mechanisms involved in the behavioral effects of hallucinogens.
Breckenridge, A., & Grobbee, D. E. (2016). Psilocybin: Promising results in double-blind trials require confirmation by real-world evidence. Journal of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881116675784
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“BACKGROUND: With the increased use of so-called targeted anti-cancer therapies, there has been a change in toxicities that patients are experiencing. As most targeted therapies are given in conjunction with more traditional chemotherapeutic agents, toxicities of these combination therapies are also evolving. Whilst we increasingly understand the mechanisms underlying the toxicities of chemotherapy and radiotherapy, the addition of targeted treatments requires a new understanding of both toxicity and interacting mechanisms. AIMS: The aims of this review (which formed the basis of an invited plenary lecture at the 2006 Annual conference of the Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer) were to define targeted anti-cancer therapy, to describe its known impact on the mucosa, either alone, or in combination with chemotherapy with or without radiotherapy, and finally to provide an outline for future directions in research into mucosal injury from targeted anti-cancer therapies. METHODOLOGY: Two separate literature reviews were conducted. The combined reviews produced 700 papers of which approximately 70 were included in the review. RESULTS: As with mucosal injury (or mucositis) in general, the studies are hampered by a lack of mucosal injury as primary endpoint, and the variable definitions and levels of reporting. The depth to which mucosal injury was studied was also inadequate. However, it is clear that the key to understanding toxicity is to understand the mechanism of action of the drug, from which it should be possible to predict the toxicities that will occur. CONCLUSIONS: With the increasing use of targeted anti-cancer therapies, mucosal injury, particularly in its manifestations of diarrhoea, and mouth ulcers, is becoming even more prominent. More publications of basic and clinical research in this area is required.
Lyke, J. (2016). Psilocybin and Peak Experiences. In Neuropathology of Drug Addictions and Substance Misuse
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800212-4.00081-9
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“Peak experiences are moments of self-actualization, which may include mystical and transcendent elements. Many cultures have incorporated psilocybin into religious rituals because of its ability to induce these experiences. Research has established that peak experiences facilitated by psilocybin may have long-lasting effects, although set and setting are important determinants of both the content and the emotional tone of individual drug experiences. Experimental research has demonstrated that psilocybin can induce peak experiences in controlled environments and these effects persist over the long term. The mechanisms through which psilocybin facilitates peak experiences involve blockage of 5-HT2Areceptor sites, decoherence of cortical oscillations, and disruptions to ordinary functioning of the default-mode network.
Bogenschutz, M. P., & Johnson, M. W. (2016). Classic hallucinogens in the treatment of addictions. Progress In Neuro-Psychopharmacology And Biological Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2015.03.002
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“Addictive disorders are very common and have devastating individual and social consequences. Currently available treatment is moderately effective at best. After many years of neglect, there is renewed interest in potential clinical uses for classic hallucinogens in the treatment of addictions and other behavioral health conditions. In this paper we provide a comprehensive review of both historical and recent clinical research on the use of classic hallucinogens in the treatment of addiction, selectively review other relevant research concerning hallucinogens, and suggest directions for future research. Clinical trial data are very limited except for the use of LSD in the treatment of alcoholism, where a meta-analysis of controlled trials has demonstrated a consistent and clinically significant beneficial effect of high-dose LSD. Recent pilot studies of psilocybin-assisted treatment of nicotine and alcohol dependence had strikingly positive outcomes, but controlled trials will be necessary to evaluate the efficacy of these treatments. Although plausible biological mechanisms have been proposed, currently the strongest evidence is for the role of mystical or other meaningful experiences as mediators of therapeutic effects. Classic hallucinogens have an excellent record of safety in the context of clinical research. Given our limited understanding of the clinically relevant effects of classic hallucinogens, there is a wealth of opportunities for research that could contribute important new knowledge and potentially lead to valuable new treatments for addiction.
Zamaria, J. A. (2016). A phenomenological examination of psilocybin and its positive and persisting aftereffects. Neuroquantology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.14704/nq.2016.14.2.943
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“This dissertation examined the positive and persisting aftereffects in eight individuals who consumed psilocybin-containing mushrooms. Mushrooms containing psilocybin have been used for healing and spiritual purposes for thousands of years, and the therapeutic applications of psilocybin were scientifically examined in the mid-20th century. Research from this era suggested that psilocybin was indicated as an effective adjunct to psychotherapy for conditions such as depression, anxiety, chemical dependency, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. After research into the therapeutic utility of psilocybin halted for several decades, it resumed in the early 2000s. Some recent research at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine has suggested that participants who consumed psilocybin described having profoundly meaningful experiences, and that these participants experienced persisting and positive changes to their mood, attitude, and behavior at 1-month and 14-month follow up. However, there has not been any research examining the mechanism of the connection between participants’ experience with psilocybin and the existence of these positive and persisting aftereffects. This study employed a phenomenological approach, using an unstructured interview to gain an understanding of participants’ description of this mechanism. Eight adults were interviewed who reported using psilocybin in the past. A within-case analysis and cross-case analysis were conducted on the data, producing 11 themes within three categories: Set, which included the themes of Preliminary Anxiety and Substantial Preparation; Experience of Psilocybin Effect, which included the themes of Profound Shift in Attention, Unity Consciousness, Increased Introspection, Positive Emotional State, and Transcendental Experience; and Persisting Aftereffects, which included the themes of Short Term Reduction in Anxiety, Persisting Insight, Assistance with Psychological Distress, and Inspired Behavioral Change. It appears that using psilocybin for the purpose of psychological and spiritual growth and introspection allowed participants to experience themselves differently than in their normal state of consciousness, encouraging a deep and unique period of self-examination. Participants brought insights gained from their psilocybin experience into their lives, maintaining that awareness far beyond the course of the substance. This research suggests that the positive and persisting aftereffects of psilocybin may be useful and that these aftereffects should be studied further. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
Pietsch, J., Scheffel, K., Acquarone, D., Koch, I., Deters, M., & Hermanns-Clausen, M. (2016). Entwicklung des Missbrauchs psychotroper Pflanzen und Pilze in Deutschland – Interpretation der Zahlen aus 3 Giftinformationszentren für die Jahre 2007–2013. Das Gesundheitswesen
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1055/s-0042-108644
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“Zusammenfassung ▼ Ziel der Studie: Durch eine Fülle von Informa tionen im Internet sind psychotrope Pflanzen und Pilze von steigender Bedeutung als legale und billige Alternative zu klassischen Rauschdro gen. Da Daten zum Missbrauch biogener Rausch drogen in Deutschland bisher fehlen, wurden entsprechende Fallberichte von drei deutschen Giftinformationszentren (GIZ) untersucht. Methodik: Die Daten der durch die GIZ in Ber lin, Erfurt und Freiburg zwischen 2007 und 2013 erfassten Missbrauchsverdachtsfälle (MVF) mit ausgewählten biogenen Rauschdrogen wurden retrospektiv ausgewertet. Ergebnisse: 602 MVF mit biogenen Rauschdro gen wurden durch die GIZ dokumentiert. Davon entfielen 52 % auf die Exposition tropanalkaloid haltiger Pflanzen (Engelstrompete, Stechapfel, Tollkirsche), 25 % auf psilocybinhaltige Pilze und 10 % auf Muskatnuss. Am häufigsten wur den Expositionen mit Engelstrompete berichtet. Tropanalkaloidhaltige Pflanzen werden über wiegend von Jugendlichen konsumiert, wohin gegen psilocybinhaltige Pilze in der Mehrzahl von jungen Erwachsenen und Muskatnuss mehr heitlich von Schulkindern zu Missbrauchszwe cken aufgenommen werden. Nach dem Abusus von Engelstrompete, Stechapfel und Tollkir sche traten in 55 % der Fälle mittelschwere und schwere Symptome auf. Durch die GIZ erfolgte in mehr als 90 % der MVF mit tropanalkaloidhalti gen Pflanzen und psilocybinhaltigen Pilzen eine Therapieempfehlung zur stationären Behand lung. Mydriasis, Halluzinationen, Tachykardie und Agitiertheit wurden als häufigste Symptome nach der missbräuchlichen Aufnahme biogener Drogen identifiziert. Schlussfolgerung: Die Daten der 3 GIZ lassen einen Rückschluss zum Missbrauch biogener Drogen in Teilen Deutschlands zu. Der Abusus biogener Drogen zeigt insgesamt eine abneh mende Tendenz, was wahrscheinlich mit dem Abstract ▼ Aim of the study: Based on an abundance of information on the internet, psychotropic plants and mushrooms are of increasing relevance as legal and cheap alternatives to other illicit drugs. Due to the lack of a German database, the abuse of selected biogenic drugs using reported expo sures to 3 German Poison Information Centres (PICs) was examined. Methods: Information on abuse of biogenic drugs was collected from the German PICs in Berlin, Erfurt and Fribourg (2007–2013). Results: 602 drug abuses were reported to the selected PICs. 52 % reported consumption of tro pane alkaloid-containing plants (Angel’s trum pet, Thorn apple, Belladonna), 25 % of psilocy bin-containing mushrooms and 10 % of nutmeg. Angel’s trumpet was identified as the most ab used plant. Consumers of tropane alkaloid-cont aining plants were mainly adolescents, whereas the majority of the abusers of psilocybincon taining mushrooms and nutmeg were rather young grown-ups and school children, respec tively. A preponderance of moderate and severe effects (55 %) could be noticed for exposures to tropane alkaloid-containing plants. More than 90 % of suspected cases of tropane alkaloid-con taining as well as psilocybin-containing plants abuse resulted in the treatment recommenda tion ‘surveillance in hospital’. Mydriasis, halluci nations, tachycardia and agitation were the main symptoms after the abuse of biogenic drugs. Conclusions: The data from the PICs suggest abuse of biogenic drugs in parts of Germany. A decreasing trend is observed, probably caused by the competition with new synthetic designer drugs. The results underline the dominance of Angel’s trumpet in the abuse of biogenic drugs and emphasize the importance of easy accessibi lity for the abuse of biogenic drugs. Unexpected ly, the number of nutmeg abuse cases increased during the investigated period.
Spring, M. G., Ostrow, R. D., & Hallock, R. M. (2016). A Profile of Those Who Use Hallucinogenic Mushrooms. In Neuropathology of Drug Addictions and Substance Misuse
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800212-4.00074-1
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“Psilocybin-containing hallucinogenic mushrooms have been consumed for a variety of purposes throughout history. This review explores three common reasons that they are consumed, and discusses the typical user and motivations for use within each category. The three reasons for use are recreational, self-medication, and accidental. Recreational users typically use mushrooms for the first time in their late teens, and they report “curiosity” and desire “to get high” as the primary reasons for trying them. Lifetime incidence of hallucinogenic mushroom use among college students is roughly 25%. Those who use mushrooms to self-medicate claim that these mushrooms treat a variety of afflictions, including migraines, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and drug addiction. Finally, many hallucinogenic mushrooms are consumed accidentally. These cases include young children who consume a mushroom in a natural setting, and adults who seek to forage wild mushrooms, make a mistake, and inadvertently consume hallucinogenic mushrooms. In this review, we describe and characterize users of hallucinogenic mushrooms based upon reports and assessments in order to create a profile of users.
McCorvy, J. D., Olsen, R. H. J., & Roth, B. L. (2016). Psilocybin for depression and anxiety associated with life-threatening illnesses. Journal of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881116675771
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“Life-threatening and terminal illnesses are accompanied by substantial stressors that encumber both patients and their fami-lies. Faced with a life-threatening diagnosis such as late-stage cancer, these factors can compound the existential crisis of impending mortality and produce or exacerbate major depres-sive and anxiety symptoms (Silverstone, 1990; Vergo et al., 2016). Addressing depression and anxiety in the unique context of life-threatening illnesses has been a significant problem for palliative psychiatric care. In this regard, two recent studies suggest that the one-time use of the naturally derived psychoac-tive compound psilocybin could have the potential to alleviate these symptoms for up to six months. Two independent studies by Griffiths et al. (2016) and Ross et al. (2016) demonstrate that psilocybin, a serotoninergic psy-chedelic, can produce a rapid and clinically significant decrease in the symptoms of depression and anxiety, which can persist for up to six months. Each study utilized a double-blind design and employed different active control compounds to address design-based confounds associated with the use of a psychoactive drug. Griffiths et al. (2016) used a low dose (1–3 mg) of psilocybin, while Ross et al. (2016) selected niacin. It is worth noting that the placebo effect is a major confound in the development of novel antidepressant drugs, as placebos can produce antidepressant effects in 30–40% of individuals (Papakostas et al., 2016). Psilocybin treatment was associated with statistically significant antidepressant and anxiolytic effects in both studies. The use of two separate control compounds (including a subclinical dose of psilocybin as control) minimizes the potential outcome that the effects are due to placebo rather than an active drug effect. Additionally, these studies utilized a crossover design, where patients receiving placebo for the first administration were given psilocybin in the second half of the study. When patients in this latter group were given psilocybin, they also exhibited marked reductions in depression and anxiety-related symptoms beyond that which may have occurred following administration of the control compounds. Together with their larger sample of partici-pants compared with prior trials (51 and 29, respectively), these studies provide support for definitive trials designed to test the hypothesis that psilocybin may have therapeutic effects with what appear to be minimal side-effects. A prior open-label study also showed apparent efficacy of psilocybin in treatment-resistant depression (Carhart-Harris et al., 2016), and although other studies have suggested a role for psychedelics such as psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) as adjuncts to psychotherapy (Carhart-Harris et al., 2012; Gasser et al., 2014; Grob et al., 2011), these prior studies have been criticized for their small sample size and open-label design. The current studies represents a significant advance over these prior studies by virtue of larger sample sizes and the use of com-parator compounds as controls. Serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and other antidepressants are thought to exert many of their actions, in part, by augmenting the concentration of serotonin at the neuronal synapse. Indeed, direct activation of serotoninergic nuclei in the dorsal raphe can produce antidepressant-like effects in animal models (Urban et al., 2016). The antidepressant effects of SSRIs and other conventional tricyclic antidepressants, however, require at least three to six weeks to achieve clinical efficacy (Frazer and Benmansour, 2002), which may not be optimal for individuals with terminal illness. Although SSRIs and psilocybin presumably both work via modulating central nervous serotonin, psilocin, the active hydroxy metabolite of psilocybin, directly activates serotonin receptors, including 5-HT2A receptors located on prefrontal cor-tical neurons (Willins et al., 1997). Elevated cortical 5-HT2A receptor expression has been implicated in depression-related suicide (Pandey, 2013; Pandey et al., 2002), and SSRIs have been reported to reduce cortical 5-HT2A receptor expression (Yamauchi et al., 2006) via a process termed receptor downregu-lation. Considering that both 5-HT2A antagonists and agonists have been found to induce 5-HT2A downregulation (Yadav et al., 2011), and that several newer generation antidepressants such as mirtazepine (Nutt, 1998) possess 5-HT2A antagonist activity, it is conceivable that psilocin may possess such sustained antide-pressant effects with one-time use via downregulating serotonin receptors, although further studies are needed to test this hypoth-esis directly. It should be noted, though, that psilocin has actions at essentially all other serotonin receptors (http://kidbdev.med. unc.edu/databases/kidb.php), and its actions could be due to a Psilocybin for depression and anxiety associated with life-threatening illnesses
Family, N., Vinson, D., Vigliocco, G., Kaelen, M., Bolstridge, M., Nutt, D. J., & Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2016). Semantic activation in LSD: evidence from picture naming. Language, Cognition And Neuroscience
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/23273798.2016.1217030
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“ABSTRACTLysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a classic psychedelic drug that alters cognition in a characteristic way. It has been suggested that psychedelics expand the breadth of cognition via actions on the central nervous system. Previous work has shown changes in semantic processing under psilocybin (a related psychedelic to LSD) that are consistent with an increased spread of semantic activation. The present study investigates this further using a picture-naming task and the psychedelic, LSD. Ten participants completed the task under placebo and LSD. Results revealed significant effects of LSD on accuracy and error correction that were consistent with an increased spread of semantic activation under LSD. These results are consistent with a generalised “entropic” effect on the mind. We suggest incorporating direct neuroimaging measures in future studies, and to employ more naturalistic measures of semantic processing that may enhance ecological validity.
Papo, D. (2016). Commentary: The entropic brain: a theory of conscious states informed by neuroimaging research with psychedelic drugs. Frontiers In Human Neuroscience
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00423
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“Entropy is a dimensionless quantity that is used for measuring uncertainty about the state of a system but it can also imply physical qualities, where high entropy is synonymous with high disorder. Entropy is applied here in the context of states of consciousness and their associated neurodynamics, with a particular focus on the psychedelic state. The psychedelic state is considered an exemplar of a primitive or primary state of consciousness that preceded the development of modern, adult, human, normal waking consciousness. Based on neuroimaging data with psilocybin, a classic psychedelic drug, it is argued that the defining feature of “primary states” is elevated entropy in certain aspects of brain function, such as the repertoire of functional connectivity motifs that form and fragment across time. Indeed, since there is a greater repertoire of connectivity motifs in the psychedelic state than in normal waking consciousness, this implies that primary states may exhibit “criticality,” i.e., the property of being poised at a “critical” point in a transition zone between order and disorder where certain phenomena such as power-law scaling appear. Moreover, if primary states are critical, then this suggests that entropy is suppressed in normal waking consciousness, meaning that the brain operates just below criticality. It is argued that this entropy suppression furnishes normal waking consciousness with a constrained quality and associated metacognitive functions, including reality-testing and self-awareness. It is also proposed that entry into primary states depends on a collapse of the normally highly organized activity within the default-mode network (DMN) and a decoupling between the DMN and the medial temporal lobes (which are normally significantly coupled). These hypotheses can be tested by examining brain activity and associated cognition in other candidate primary states such as rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and early psychosis and comparing these with non-primary states such as normal waking consciousness and the anaesthetized state.
M., S., D., M., T., M., & A.R., H. (2016). Penultimate symptoms of truman show syndrome: Reduplicative paramnesia with prop delusions-a case study. Cns Spectrums
Plain numerical DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1092852915000905
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“OBJECTIVES: To highlight the insensate delusions of Truman Show Syndrome. METHODS: Case Study: 20 year old right-handed, single, African American male complains of, since the age of 7, feeling like he is the central character in the movie The Truman Show, where everyone is watching him and everyone (except immediate family) have been replaced by actors. Moreover, the physical objects around him have been replaced by artificial cardboard movie scenery. He repetitively touches surrounding furniture and objects in order to validate their true nature. He believes that the physical environment surrounding him is fake, as if “in an experiment, or in the movie The Matrix”. When estivating and flying to a new city, he perceives the fellow travelers, flight attendants, and pilots as actors and the plane and city itself are all elaborate props in his personal drama. He admits ideas of references, whereby glances from strangers suggest to him that he is being watched as the protagonist of this elaborate scheme. As a result, he avoids social gatherings and groups. Confiding in his parents received reassurance. Querying his close companions as to their occupation as actors is pleasantly rebuffed as if it is humorous. When the monothematic delusions are present, he feels overwhelmed saying “if the delusional thought of being the star of the Truman Show enters my thought process, I can not derail my own thought train”. Approximately 70% of the time, he has insight as to the delusional nature of his condition and 30% of the time he is submerged in the pathological belief system. Intensity of the delusion is enhanced by lack of sleep and markedly exacerbated by marijuana, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), and psilocybin mushrooms. He affirms occasional auditory hypnogogic hallucinations as well as when surrounded by a large crowd, at which time he notes nondescript noises and his name being called in a mechanical voice. His past medical history is relevant for head trauma with loss of consciousness at age 9 and recurrent syncope while playing a thoracic compression game, “Pass Out Challenge”, with friends. RESULTS: Birth, developmental, family, social history, and general physical exam are normal. Normal neurologic exam includes gait, cerebellar, sensory, &reflexes.-Abnormalities: Motor Exam: Right Pronator Drift.-Ancillary Tests include: Clock drawing test 4/4; Semantic Fluency Test: 33; Beck Depression Inventory type II: 29; Beck Anxiety Inventory: 16; Alcohol Sniff Test: 17. TREATMENT: Despite Aripiprazole, he did not follow up with the presumption that the medical team was also included in his delusion. CONCLUSION: Unlike other misidentification delusional syndromes like Capgras or Fergoli’s, not only are the people replaced with ‘imposters’ but inanimate objects are also incorporated in the Truman Show delusion. Queries should be conducted as to the extent of the delusion systems in those who present with this syndrome.
Kohli, R., Sunduram, S., Mouzaki, M., Ali, S., Sathya, P., Abrams, S., et al. (2016). Pediatric nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: A report from the expert committee on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (ECON). Journal Of Pediatrics
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2015.12.016
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“Several lines of evidence suggest that classic (5HT2A agonist) hallucinogens have clinically relevant effects in alcohol and drug addiction. Although recent studies have investigated the effects of psilocybin in various populations, there have been no studies on the efficacy of psilocybin for alcohol dependence. We conducted a single-group proof-of-concept study to quantify acute effects of psilocybin in alcohol-dependent participants and to provide preliminary outcome and safety data. Ten volunteers with DSM-IV alcohol dependence received orally administered psilocybin in one or two supervised sessions in addition to Motivational Enhancement Therapy and therapy sessions devoted to preparation for and debriefing from the psilocybin sessions. Participants’ responses to psilocybin were qualitatively similar to those described in other populations. Abstinence did not increase significantly in the first 4 weeks of treatment (when participants had not yet received psilocybin), but increased significantly following psilocybin administration (p < 0.05). Gains were largely maintained at follow-up to 36 weeks. The intensity of effects in the first psilocybin session (at week 4) strongly predicted change in drinking during weeks 5-8 (r = 0.76 to r = 0.89) and also predicted decreases in craving and increases in abstinence self-efficacy during week 5. There were no significant treatment-related adverse events. These preliminary findings provide a strong rationale for controlled trials with larger samples to investigate efficacy and mechanisms.TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT02061293, Copyright © The Author(s) 2015.
Hendrie, C., & Pickles, A. (2016). Psilocybin: panacea or placebo?. The Lancet Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30103-1
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“We write with reference to the study on psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression, reported by Robin L Carhart-Harris and colleagues in The Lancet Psychiatry.1 Although we are relieved that attention is once again being given to basic research into depression—after the hiatus created the effective abandonment of this area of research by Big Pharma from 2010 onwards2—we are nonetheless deeply concerned that the mistakes that led to this withdrawal3 are in danger of being repeated. Carhart-Harris and colleagues’ study included 12 patients, and although the investigators reported that eight patients achieved complete remission at 1 week, only five of these patients were still in complete remission after 3 months of follow-up. The investigators concluded that this finding provides preliminary support for the safety and efficacy of psilocybin. The safety aspects are not at issue, but findings from a number of meta-analyses4, 5 now indicate that placebo alone can account for remission in approximately 40% of patients in this setting. Regrettably for the investigators’ conclusions with respect to efficacy, this figure matches almost exactly the 42% (ie, 5/12) of patients they report as showing remission after 3 months. Further studies are of course always welcome, but we must be very careful not to be blinded in our critical thinking in this context by hopes that serendipity can provide answers that science has so far failed to provide.
Goodwin, G. M. (2016). Psilocybin: Psychotherapy or drug?. Journal of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881116675757
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“Comments on an article by Stephen Ross et al. (see record 2016-58838-002) & Roland R Griffiths et al. (see record 2016-58838-003). This edition of the Journal of Psychopharmacology highlights two very similarly designed studies of the effects of the serotonergic agonist psilocybin on the psychological distress of cancer patients. Psilocybin produced an acute increase in blood pressure and a variety of immediate and obvious subjective effects. The subjective effects were transient and did not lead to persisting abnormal perceptions. The outcome measures of both trials are entirely subjective, comprising self, community and clinician reports, just as most studies of antidepressants and anxiolytics have been. While this is understandable, it is a particular weakness of any study where blinding is inadequate. Any cue that makes participants in an experimental study aware of what the experimenter expects to find or how participants are expected to behave is called a demand characteristic. These studies have demand characteristics in spades. Just as for other studies, symptoms alone are also a limited way of assessing the value of treatment: more objective measures of activity, simply motor or economic, the costs of their cancer care and so on should also be part of the future picture for research in this area. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
Manetti, M., Rosa, I., Fazi, M., Guiducci, S., Carmeliet, P., Ibba-Manneschi, L., & Matucci-Cerinic, M. (2016). Systemic sclerosis-like histopathological features in the myocardium of uPAR-deficient mice. Annals Of The Rheumatic Diseases
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2015-207803
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“Psychedelic drugs have a long history of use in healing ceremonies, but despite renewed interest in their therapeutic potential, we continue to know very little about how they work in the brain. Here we used psilocybin, a classic psychedelic found in magic mushrooms, and a task-free functional MRI (fMRI) protocol designed to capture the transition from normal waking consciousness to the psychedelic state. Arterial spin labeling perfusion and blood-oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) fMRI were used to map cerebral blood flow and changes in venous oxygenation before and after intravenous infusions of placebo and psilocybin. Fifteen healthy volunteers were scanned with arterial spin labeling and a separate 15 with BOLD. As predicted, profound changes in consciousness were observed after psilocybin, but surprisingly, only decreases in cerebral blood flow and BOLD signal were seen, and these were maximal in hub regions, such as the thalamus and anterior and posterior cingulate cortex (ACC and PCC). Decreased activity in the ACC/medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) was a consistent finding and the magnitude of this decrease predicted the intensity of the subjective effects. Based on these results, a seed-based pharmaco-physiological interaction/functional connectivity analysis was performed using a medial prefrontal seed. Psilocybin caused a significant decrease in the positive coupling between the mPFC and PCC. These results strongly imply that the subjective effects of psychedelic drugs are caused by decreased activity and connectivity in the brain’s key connector hubs, enabling a state of unconstrained cognition.
Knopf, O. (2016). Wunderwaffe Recycler?. Bi Umweltbau
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“Want to buy socks or psilocybin without being traced? Bitcoins are for you.
Kleber, H. D. (2016). The successful return of psychedelics to psychiatry. Journal of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881116675779
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“The study conducted at New York University (NYU; Ross et al., 2016) was methodologically similar but not identical to that conducted at Johns Hopkins (JHU; Griffiths et al., 2016). Both studies used randomized, double-blind, crossover designs to compare a moderate-high dose of psilocybin (21 and 22 mg/70 kg) with a control condition in patients with life-threat-ening cancer; both used a range of self-reported measures of anxiety and depression; both conducted a six-month follow-up; both showed that a single-dose of psilocybin can produce sub-stantial and sustained decreases in depression, anxiety, and existential distress; and both suggested that a mystical experi-ence was associated with the therapeutic outcome. However, the two studies differed in several important respects. The NYU study had a smaller sample size (N=29) than the JHU study (N=51). With regard to the comparison condition, the NYU study used niacin as a control in contrast to the JHU study that used a low dose of psilocybin and instructions that helped minimize the role of expectancy. Also, the NYU study exclusively used patient self-report outcome measures rather than a combination of the self-report, clinician-rated, and com-munity-observer rated outcome measures used in the JHU study. A strength of the NYU study compared with the JHU study is that it assessed outcomes the day after the psilocybin session, thus allowing the conclusion of rapid onset of therapeutic action. In contrast to the JHU study, whose clinical support staff did not receive formalized psychotherapeutic training, the NYU sup-port staff included only licensed mental-health therapists who received more formalized didactic and clinical training, with con-siderable emphasis on psychotherapeutic process during the pre-and post-psilocybin meetings with patients. Despite the less formal psychotherapy approach used in the JHU study, the over-all baseline versus six months post effect size changes on the same key measures of anxiety and depression (the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, Beck Depression Inventory, and the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory) were somewhat higher in the JHU study (mean Cohen’s d=1.7, tables 4 and 5) than they were in the NYU study (mean Cohen’s d=1.2, table S1), thus suggest-ing that the more formalized therapist training did not confer a significant enduring therapeutic advantage. Overall, the systematic replication of the main outcomes across two sites contributes significantly to confidence of the robustness of the finding that a single administration of psilocy-bin may have substantial and enduring antidepressant and anti-anxiety effects in patients with clinically significant cancer-related anxiety and depression.
Summergrad, P. (2016). Psilocybin in end of life care: Implications for further research. Journal Of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881116675758
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“Comments on an article by Stephen Ross et al. (see record 2016-58838-002) & Roland R Griffiths et al. (see record 2016-58838-003). Ross et al. (2016) studied 29 cancer patients using a two-session, double-blind, crossover design employing psilocybin first then niacin second, or niacin first and psilocybin second. Griffiths et al. (2016) studied 51 cancer patients using a twosession, double-blind, crossover design employing high-dose psilocybin first then very low-dose (placebo-like) psilocybin second, or very low-dose (placebo-like) psilocybin first and high-dose psilocybin second. In both studies, adverse events were limited and included expected increases in blood pressure, pulse, nausea and vomiting, and transient anxiety or occasional psychotic symptoms, which remitted rapidly. The experiences of salience, meaningfulness, and healing that accompanied these powerful spiritual experiences and that were found to be mediators of clinical response in both of these carefully performed studies are also important to understand in their own right and are worthy of further study and contemplation. None of us are immune from the transitory nature of human life, which can bring fear and apprehension or conversely a real sense of meaning and preciousness if we carefully number our days. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
Di Lorenzo, C., Coppola, G., Di Lorenzo, G., Bracaglia, M., Rossi, P., & Pierelli, F. (2016). The use of illicit drugs as self-medication in the treatment of cluster headache: Results from an Italian online survey. Cephalalgia
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0333102415583145
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“Cluster headache (CH) patients often receive unsatisfactory treatment and may explore illicit substances as alternatives. We aimed to explore this use of illicit drugs for CH treatment.We invited CH patients from an Internet-based self-help group to complete a questionnaire regarding their therapeutic use of illicit substances.Of the 54 respondents, 29 were classified as chronic and 39 were drug-resistant cases. Fifty patients had previously tried subcutaneous sumatriptan, 40 had tried O2, and 48 had tried at least one prophylactic treatment. All 54 patients specified that they were dissatisfied with conventional treatments. Thirty-four patients had used cannabinoids, 13 cocaine, 8 heroin, 18 psilocybin, 12 lysergic acid amide (LSA), and 4 lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).Some patients with intractable CH decided to try illicit drugs concomitantly with cessation of medical care. Most of these patients found suggestions for illicit drug use on the Internet. Many patients seemed to underestimate the judicial consequences of, and had an overestimated confidence in the safety of, such illicit treatments. Physicians are often not informed by patients of their choice to use illicit drugs. This leads to questions regarding the true nature of the physician-patient relationship among dissatisfied CH patients.
2015
Halberstadt, A. L. (2015). Recent advances in the neuropsychopharmacology of serotonergic hallucinogens. Behavioural Brain Research
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.07.016
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“Serotonergic hallucinogens, such as (+)-lysergic acid diethylamide, psilocybin, and mescaline, are somewhat enigmatic substances. Although these drugs are derived from multiple chemical families, they all produce remarkably similar effects in animals and humans, and they show cross-tolerance. This article reviews the evidence demonstrating the serotonin 5-HT2Areceptor is the primary site of hallucinogen action. The 5-HT2Areceptor is responsible for mediating the effects of hallucinogens in human subjects, as well as in animal behavioral paradigms such as drug discrimination, head twitch response, prepulse inhibition of startle, exploratory behavior, and interval timing. Many recent clinical trials have yielded important new findings regarding the psychopharmacology of these substances. Furthermore, the use of modern imaging and electrophysiological techniques is beginning to help unravel how hallucinogens work in the brain. Evidence is also emerging that hallucinogens may possess therapeutic efficacy.
Palma, A., Galindo, L., Grifell, M., Quintana, P., Toll, A., Ventura, M., et al. (2015). P.6.d.016 An old chemical that became a new psychoactive substance: study on O-Acetylpsilocin samples handled for analysis and raise of awareness. European Neuropsychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0924-977X(15)30877-4
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“Introduction: New psychoactive substances (NPS) refer to emerging substances that have appeared on the market and are not under international control [1]. NPS have experienced an unprecedented increase in number, type and availability [2]. O-Acetylpsilocin also known as Psilacetin and 4-Acetoxy-DMT (4-AcO-DMT) is a synthetic tryptamine having a psychedelic effect by stimulating the serotoninergic system [4] and proposed as a research substitute for psilocybin as a prodrug of psilocin [3]. Even though patented in 1963 its effects on humans have not been systematically studied and it is non-regulated in Spain. Search for literature on 4-AcO-DMT in March 2015 found no studies conducted on humans. Objective: The aims of this study are (1) to explore the presence of 4-AcO-DMT from the samples handled to and analyzed by harm reduction service Energy Control and (2) to evaluate the rate between 4-AcO-DMT and other related tryptamines (mushrooms, 4-AcO-DIPT, 4-AcO-MIPT and psilocybin). Materials and Methods: All samples analyzed from January 2009 to December 2014 handled as 4-AcO-DMT or in which 4-AcO-DMT was found were studied. Spanish harm-reduction non-governmental organization Energy Control offers users the possibility of analyzing the substances they intend to consume. Analysis were done by Thin Layer Chromatography and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. Results: From 17.432 samples registered during the period of study 4-AcO-DMT was found in 48 (0.27%): 46 presented as 4-AcO-DMT, 1 as 4-OH-DMT (psilocin) and 1 as an unknown substance. Totally 48 samples were presented as 4-AcO-DMT: apart from the aforementioned 46 samples another 2 samples were presented as 4-AcO-DMT were no substance was found. In 37 samples containing 4-AcO-DMT (77.08%) presence of 4-OH-DMT was also found. From 2009 to 2010 9 samples were delivered as 4-AcO-DMT, 16 from 2011 to 2012 and 23 from 2013 to 2014 4-AcO-DMT was the 24th most handled substance during the whole period and representing 62.33% (48 out of 77) of the psilocin related substances [4-AcO-DMT (n = 48), mushrooms (n = 12), 4-AcO-DIPT (n = 12), 4-AcO-MIPT (n = 1) and psilocybin (n = 1)]. Conclusion and Discussion: Results show a recent increase in 4-Aco-DMT analysis that could translate a progressive rise in its recreational use gaining ground to other regulated tryptamines. Whether psilocin found on samples is a result of adulteration, degradation or an analytical artefact should be further studied. Clinical relevance comes from its growing use and the absence of scientific evidence on humans, not even a case report, therefore relying on users subjective experience to predict the effects of the substance. Awareness should be raised to clinicians and scientist in order to promote evidence on this substance clinical effects as well as epidemiological data at a larger scale.
Helvenston, P. A. (2015). Psilocybin-containing mushrooms, upper Palaeolithic rock art and the neuropsychological model. Rock Art Research
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“Two recent papers authored by Froese, Woodward and Ikegami present the neuropsychological model of Lewis-Williams and Dowson as if it had just been published. This paper corrects their distortions of the work of critics, including Helvenston and Bahn, addresses neuropsychological errors and discusses the complexities of psilocybin-containing mushrooms. It includes a discussion of the mushrooms depicted in the Selva Pascuala mural found at the Villar Humo Cultural Site in Cuenca, Spain.
Carbonaro, T. M., Klinedinst, M., Johnson, M. W., & Griffiths, R. R. (2015). Comparative phenomenology of psilocybin experiences in research and non-research settings. Drug And Alcohol Dependence
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.07.1017
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“See, stats, and : https : // www. researchgate. net/ publication/ 284069743 Comparative experiences – research settings Article DOI : 10. 1016 / j. drugalcdep. 2015. 07.1017CITATIONS0READS994:Theresa12SEEMargaretJohns5SEEMatthewJohns111,311SEERolandJohns394,152SEEAll.The.e36CPDD77thAnnualMeetingAbstracts(2015)/DrugandAlcoholDependence156(2015)e2–e101Aims:Aim1examineddirectassociationsofbehavioralaccul-turation,behavioralenculturation,andculturalcongruity(theperceptionofculturalfitbetweenthevaluesoftheacademicinsti-tutionandthestudent’spersonalvalues)withalcoholuseseverity.Aim2testedifgendermoderatedthoseassociations.Methods:Participantsvoluntarilyconsentedandcompletedself-reportmeasuresinananonymousonlinesurvey.Ahierarchi-callinearregressionandmoderationanalyseswereconductedonasampleof167Hispanicemergingadults(ages18–25)enrolledininstitutionsofhighereducation.Genderwasdummycoded(0)formenand(1)forwomen.Results:20.9{%}ofthevarianceinalcoholuseseveritywasaccountedforbyallpredictorvariablesenteredintheregressionmodel.Aftercontrollingfordemographicvariablesanddepres-sivesymptoms,behavioralacculturationandenculturationdidnothavestatisticallysignificantassociationswithalcoholusesever-ity.Further,genderdidnotmoderateeitheroftheseassociations.Conversely,greaterperceptionsofculturalcongruitywereasso-ciatedwithlowerscoresofalcoholuseseverity=−.20,p{<}.05).Amoderationanalysiswith10,000boot-strapiterationindicatedthatculturalcongruityhadabeneficialeffectinloweringalcoholuseseverityformen=−.20,p≤.001,99{%}CI[−.35,−.05]),butnotamongwomen=−.04,p{>}.05,99{%}CI[−.13,.05]).Conclusions:Thiswasthefirstknownstudytoexaminetheassociationofculturalcongruitywithalcoholuse.Findingshigh-lightthevalueofexaminingcontextualfactorsofcultureandmovingbeyondreductivemeasuresofculturalorientation.Financialsupport:None.
Sessa, B., & Johnson, M. W. (2015). Can psychedelic compounds play a part in drug dependence therapy?. British Journal of Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1192/bjp.bp.114.148031
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“After a 40-year hiatus there is now a revisiting of psychedelic drug therapy throughout psychiatry. with studies examining the drugs psilocybin, ketamine, ibogaine and ayahuasca in treatment of drug dependence. Limitations to these therapies are both clinical and legal, but the possibility of improving outcomes for patients with substance dependency imposes an obligation to research this area.
Ellison-Wright, Z., & Sessa, B. (2015). A persisting perception disorder after cannabis use. Progress In Neurology And Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/pnp.363
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“Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder is a disorder of uncertain aetiology occurring mainly after ‘classical’ hallucinogen use (ie mescaline, psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine and LSD) use. Here, the authors describe the case of a boy with similar symptoms developing after he reported using cannabis seven times.
Garcia-Romeu, A. P., Griffiths, R. R., & Johnson, M. W. (2015). Psychedelic-facilitated smoking cessation: An online survey. Drug And Alcohol Dependence
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.09.245
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“Aims: Pilot laboratory results suggest psilocybin may be an efficacious adjunct to smoking cessation treatment. However, no study has examined smoking cessation after psychedelic use in naturalistic settings. Methods: We are conducting an online survey collecting demographics, smoking history, and other data from people who self-report quitting/reducing smoking after taking a psychedelic. Results: Among current completers (N= 164), LSD (49%) and psilocybin (32%) were the drugs most commonly associated with quitting/reducing, with a mode of 2-5 lifetime uses each. Participants reported smoking a mean of 12 cigs/day for a mean of 8 yrs before the experience. 62 (38%) reported total and continuing abstinence after their experience, with 29 of the 62 (47%) reporting >1 yr abstinence, and 7 (11%) reporting >10 yrs abstinence. Another 67 of the 164 (41%) reported persisting smoking reduction, from a mode of 10-20 cigs/day before, to a mode of <1 cig/month after the experience. The remaining 35 (21%) reported temporary reduction, with 6 of the 35 (17%) reporting >1 yr reduction. Although the majority of withdrawal symptoms were rated as equal in severity to previous quit attempts, depression, irritability, anxiety, and craving were rated as “much less severe.” 141 of the 164 (86%) reported no premeditated intention to quit/reduce smoking, and 159 (97%) described their experience as highly meaningful, with 97 (59%) considering it among the 10 most meaningful experiences of their lives. Participants cited changed life priorities/values (26%), strengthened belief in their ability to quit (26%), and changed future orientation (17%) as the most important effects leading to quitting/reducing. Other changes reported after psychedelic use included reduced alcohol (38%) and other drug use (23%). Conclusions: Psychedelics may prompt temporary or prolonged smoking cessation, suggesting that careful administration in a treatment context may enhance motivation in changing addictive behaviors. Psychological and neurobiological mechanisms underlying such behavioral changes require further investigation.
L., L., C.H.R., H., & N.E., E. (2015). From delightful mushroom to poisoning: A Danish mushroom syndromes survey. Clinical Toxicology
Plain numerical DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/15563650.2015.1024953
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“Objective: Exploring nature and collecting plants and mushrooms as food items for the new Nordic kitchen has evolved in recent years. This behaviour has led to several cases of improper intake of fresh mushrooms resulting in poisonings requiring advanced treatment. Based on clinical symptoms mushrooms intake can be divided in toxic syndromes. We evaluated the representation of nine mushroom syndromes in the Danish mushroom poisoning profile from January 2006 to October 2014. Methods: Enquires about mushroom poisoning to the Danish Poisons Information Centre (DPIC) were collected, reviewed and divided in the nine mushroom syndromes based on the xenobiotic content of the mushrooms and symptomatology: amatoxin, gyromitrin, muscarine, disulfiram-like, anticholinergic, psilocybin, gastrointestinal, orellanin and haemolytic syndromes.1 Unidentified but non-symptomatic exposures and other, identified but non-toxic exposures were additional groups. Results: Mushroom exposures represented approximately 2% of all calls to DPIC in 2006-2013, with a slight increasing tendency in the last 4 years. Mushroom exposure syndromes are seasonal in the autumn peaking in September, except psilocybin which is represented evenly throughout the entire year. Mushroom syndrome distributions in 2006-2014 are shown in Table 1. Mushrooms causing gastrointestinal symptoms were most frequent. In 68 cases, cytotoxic mushroom ingestion (amatoxin, gyromitrin and orellanin) caused severe and potentially life-threatening poisoning, with the amatoxin syndrome as most dominant. The unidentified mushrooms mainly involved mushrooms partly identified by process of elimination (i.e. not cytotoxic species). The non-toxic mushrooms mainly involving accidental ingestion in children. Conclusion: Collecting mushrooms for food without comprehensive knowledge of edible species and their toxic counterparts caused several severe poisonings, primarily within the amatoxin and gastrointestinal syndromes. Preventive measures in terms of information and education are needed, combined with online guidance for mushroom collectors. (Table Presented).
Wiltshire, P. E. J., Hawksworth, D. L., & Edwards, K. J. (2015). Light microscopy can reveal the consumption of a mixture of psychotropic plant and fungal material in suspicious death. Journal Of Forensic And Legal Medicine
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.jflm.2015.05.010
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“Abstract Light microscopical examination of plant and fungal remains in the post mortem gut may be capable of demonstrating the ingestion of unexpected natural psychotropic materials. This is demonstrated here in a case in which a ‘shaman’ was accused of causing the death of a young man. The deceased had participated in a ceremony which involved the drinking of ayahuasca in order to induce a psychotropic experience. Ayahuasca is an infusion of Banisteriopsis caapi (ayahuasca vine), which produces a monoamine oxidase inhibitor, and one or more additional tropical plants, generally Psychotria viridis (chacruna) which produces dimethyltryptamine (DMT). The monoamine oxidase inhibitor prevents DMT from being broken down in the gut, so enabling its passage into the bloodstream and across the blood/brain barrier. Toxicological tests for DMT demonstrated the presence of this compound in the body. The deceased was reported to be in the habit of using Psilocybe semilanceata (liberty cap). This fungus (popularly called magic mushroom) contains psilocybin which is hydrolysed in the gut to psilocin; this compound mimics a serotonin uptake inhibitor, and also invokes psychotropic experiences. Microscopical examination established that the ileum and colon contained spores of Psilocybe and, in addition, pollen of Cannabis sativa and seeds of Papaver cf. somniferum (opium poppy). Both the plant species yield psychotropic substances. Palynological and mycological analysis of containers from the deceased person’s dwelling also yielded abundant trace evidence of pertinent pollen and spores. The police had requested analysis for DMT but there was no screening for other psychotropic substances. Investigators were surprised that a mixture of hallucinogenic materials had been consumed by the deceased. The charge was modified from manslaughter to possession of a Class A’ drug as the deceased had been consuming psychotropic substances not administered by the ‘shaman’. Where death involving drugs from plants or fungi is suspected, microscopical examination of samples from the gut can provide a rapid and effective method for assessing, in a temporal context, the presence of ingested materials that may not have been previously suspected. The example presented here also demonstrates the need for caution in interpreting toxicological results where screening for unusual compounds has been limited.
Wieczorek, P. P., Witkowska, D., Jasicka-Misiak, I., Poliwoda, A., Oterman, M., & Zielińska, K. (2015). Bioactive alkaloids of hallucinogenic mushrooms. Studies In Natural Products Chemistry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-63462-7.00005-1
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“The aim of our chapter is to review recent developments in a group of medicinally important natural products-alkaloids, with reference to the structure-activity studies in respect of certain diseases. Alkaloids covered by our review come from mushrooms called “hallucinogenic.” Hallucinogenic compounds have been chemically identified in mushrooms belonging to various genera, e.g., Agrocybe, Amanita, Conocybe, Galerina, Gymnopilus, Hypholoma, Inocybe, Panaeolus, Psilocybe, Pholiotina, Pluteus, and Weraroa [J.W. Allen, Ethnomycol. J. Sacred Mushroom Stud. 9 (2012) 130-175]. One of the largest classes of alkaloids is indole alkaloids. Indoles are probably the most widely distributed heterocyclic compounds in nature having medicinal importance [K.N. Kumar et al., Molecules 18 (2013) 6620-6662]. Two of simple indole alkaloids: psilocin (3-[2 (dimethylamino)ethyl]-4-indolol) and psilocybin ([3-(2-dimethylaminoethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl] dihydrogen phosphate) are present in most psychedelic mushrooms. Psilocin is a serotonin agonist – psilocybin/psilocin caused effects are thought to be mediated mainly by activation of 5-HT2Areceptor. Ligands for the 5-HT2Areceptor may be extremely useful tools for future cognitive neuroscience research [D.E. Nichols, Pharmacol. Ther. 101 (2004) 131-181]. They are also other analogs of psilocybin: baeocystin, norbaeocystin, bufotenin, and aeruginascin that are found in hallucinogenic mushrooms. Bufotenin occur also in some animal species (genus Bufo) and plants. Some of the mushroom belonging to genera Gymnopilus and Pholiota were shown to possess bisnoryangonin and hispidin, alkaloids with antimicrobial [K. Shinto et al., J. Home Econ. Jpn. 58 (9) (2007) 563-568] and antioxidant [Lee In-K et al., Mycobiology, 36 (1) (2008) 55-59] activity. Also psychoactive species of genus Amanita, contain the alkaloids (muscimol, ibotenic acid, and muscazone) that react with neurotransmitter receptors in the central nervous system. Isoxazoles, to which these alkaloids belong, have been found to inhibit voltage-gated sodium channels to control pain, enable the construction of tetracycline antibiotic derivatives, and as treatments for depression. The information within this review is intended to serve as a reference tool to better enable future research into important and fascinating area of pharmacognostic science as well as other parts of medical science.
Johansen, P. O., & Krebs, T. S. (2015). Psychedelics not linked to mental health problems or suicidal behavior: A population study. Journal Of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881114568039
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“A recent large population study of 130,000 adults in the United States failed to find evidence for a link between psychedelic use (lysergic acid diethylamide, psilocybin or mescaline) and mental health problems. Using a new data set consisting of 135,095 randomly selected United States adults, including 19,299 psychedelic users, we examine the associations between psychedelic use and mental health. After adjusting for sociodemographics, other drug use and childhood depression, we found no significant associations between lifetime use of psychedelics and increased likelihood of past year serious psychological distress, mental health treatment, suicidal thoughts, suicidal plans and suicide attempt, depression and anxiety. We failed to find evidence that psychedelic use is an independent risk factor for mental health problems. Psychedelics are not known to harm the brain or other body organs or to cause addiction or compulsive use; serious adverse events involving psychedelics are extremely rare. Overall, it is difficult to see how prohibition of psychedelics can be justified as a public health measure.
Carod-Artal, F. J. (2015). Hallucinogenic drugs in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures. Neurología (English Edition)
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.nrleng.2011.07.010
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“INTRODUCTION: The American continent is very rich in psychoactive plants and fungi, and many pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures used them for magical, therapeutic and religious purposes.\n\nOBJECTIVES: The archaeological, ethno-historical and ethnographic evidence of the use of hallucinogenic substances in Mesoamerica is reviewed.\n\nRESULTS: Hallucinogenic cactus, plants and mushrooms were used to induce altered states of consciousness in healing rituals and religious ceremonies. The Maya drank balché (a mixture of honey and extracts of Lonchocarpus) in group ceremonies to achieve intoxication. Ritual enemas and other psychoactive substances were also used to induce states of trance. Olmec, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec used peyote, hallucinogenic mushrooms (teonanacatl: Psilocybe spp) and the seeds of ololiuhqui (Turbina corymbosa), that contain mescaline, psilocybin and lysergic acid amide, respectively. The skin of the toad Bufo spp contains bufotoxins with hallucinogenic properties, and was used since the Olmec period. Jimson weed (Datura stramonium), wild tobacco (Nicotiana rustica), water lily (Nymphaea ampla) and Salvia divinorum were used for their psychoactive effects. Mushroom stones dating from 3000 BC have been found in ritual contexts in Mesoamerica. Archaeological evidence of peyote use dates back to over 5000 years. Several chroniclers, mainly Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, described their effects in the sixteenth century.\n\nCONCLUSIONS: The use of psychoactive substances was common in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican societies. Today, local shamans and healers still use them in ritual ceremonies in Mesoamerica.
Preller, K. H., Pokorny, T., Krähenmann, R., Scheidegger, M., Dziobek, I., Stampfli, P., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2015). P.1.i.005 The 5-HT2A/1A agonist psilocybin reduces social pain and enhances empathy in healthy volunteers. European Neuropsychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0924-977X(15)30364-3
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“Social cognition is a crucial factor influencing development, progress, and treatment of psychiatric disorders. Impairments in social cognition represent central characteristics of various psychiatric and neurological disorders and are leading causes of disability and comprise real-world functioning, such as work functioning and independent living. However, social cognition skills are insufficiently targeted by current treatment approaches. In particular, patients suffering from depression show an increased negative reaction to social exclusion and deficits in empathy. Psilocybin is a preferential 5-HT2A (Ki = 6 nM) and 5-HT1A receptor (Ki = 190 nM) agonist and has previously been shown to reduce the neural response to negative emotional stimuli [1]. However, it is not known if this extends to negative social interaction and whether 5-HT2A/1A receptor stimulation induces changes in empathy. Given the clear need for improved treatment of sociocognitive functioning in psychiatric disorders, it is important to better understand the neuronal and neuromodulatory substrates of social cognition, in particular the specific role of the 5-HT2A/1A receptor system [2]. In a double-blind, randomized, cross-over design we therefore investigated the neural and behavioral response to ostracism after the acute administration of psilocybin (0.215 mg/kg) and placebo in 21 healthy volunteers using an interactive virtual ball-tossing game called “Cyberball” [3]. Participants completed social inclusion and exclusion (participant was ostracized by the other two players) conditions while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Furthermore, participants rated their feeling of social exclusion on a 9-point scale. Moreover, cognitive and emotional empathy were assessed using the Multifaceted Empathy Test [4]. Behavioral data were analyzed by repeatedmeasures analyses of variance with treatment (psilocybin vs. placebo) as within-subject factor or paired t-test where applicable. FMRI images were analyzed according to an event-related design using a general linear model (GLM) as implemented in SPM8. The neural response to social exclusion vs. inclusion was reduced after psilocybin administration compared to placebo in the right dACC – A brain region associated with “social pain” (peak: x = 6, y = 26, z = 22, p<0.05, FWE). In line with these results, subjective ratings assessing the feeling of social exclusion during the game revealed that participants felt less excluded after treatment with psilocybin compared with placebo (T(20)=2.71, p<0.01), while attention and awareness of exclusion were not altered (all p>0.1). Furthermore, emotional empathy was enhanced after treatment with psilocybin (F(1,31) = 7.09, p <0.01), while no significant differences were found for cognitive empathy (F(1.31) = 1.28, p>0.27). These results show that the 5-HT2A/1A receptor subtypes play an important role in the modulation of socio-cognitive functioning and therefore may be relevant for the treatment of disturbances in social cognition in psychiatric disorders. In particular, they may be important for the normalization of empathy deficits and increased negative reaction to social exclusion in patients with major depression disorder. Understanding the neuronal and neuromodulatory substrates of social cognition offers the potential to contribute to a mechanistic understanding of social interaction and therefore identify novel targets for pharmacological interventions in psychiatric disorders.
MacLean, K. A., Johnson, M. W., Griffiths, R. R., Galanter, M., Kleber, H. D., Brady, K. T., et al. (2015). Hallucinogens and club drugs. In The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of substance abuse treatment (5th ed.).
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“Hallucinogens are a pharmacologically diverse group of compounds, including plant- and animal-sourced compounds and synthetic drugs that produce unique alterations of consciousness. These psychoactive substances produce a profile of changes in thoughts, perceptions, and emotions, often including profound alterations in the perception of reality, that are rarely experienced except in dreams, naturally occurring mystical experiences, and acute psychosis. Naturally occurring hallucinogenic agents have been used for millennia by indigenous cultures in rites of passage, divination, and healing ceremonies and continue to be used as sacramental and recreational drugs Examples include psilocybin (the main psychoactive constituent in the Psilocybe genus and several other genera of mushrooms), dimethyltryptamine (DMT, one of the main psychoactive constituents in the plant admixture ayahuasca), mescaline (the main psychoactive constituent in peyote cactus), and salvinorin A (the main psychoactive constituent of Salvia divinorum, a plant in the mint family). Anticholinergic hallucinogens such as scopolamine have an ancient history of sacramental use in Asia and South America, but have limited modern recreational use because of their unpleasant hallucinogenic effects. Synthetic hallucinogens include lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), dissociative anesthetics, methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, often contained in the illicit drug ecstasy), and designer hallucinogens. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved). (chapter)
Baumeister, D., Tojo, L. M., & Tracy, D. K. (2015). Legal highs: Staying on top of the flood of novel psychoactive substances. Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/2045125314559539
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“There has been growing clinical, public, and media awareness and concern about the availability and potential harmfulness of so-called ‘legal highs’, which are more appropriately called new or novel psychoactive substances (NPS). A cat-and-mouse process has emerged wherein unknown chemists and laboratories are producing new, and as yet nonproscribed, compounds for human consumption; and as soon as they are banned, which they inevitably are, slightly modified analogues are produced to circumvent new laws. This rapidly changing environment, 81 new substances were identified in 2013 alone, has led to confusion for clinicians, psychopharmacologists, and the public at large. Our difficulties in keeping up with the process has had a two-fold negative effect: the danger of ignoring what is confusing; and the problem that some of the newer synthesized compounds appear ever more potent. This review aims to circumscribe a quick moving and growing field, and to categorize NPS into five major groups based upon their ‘parent’ compounds: stimulants similar to cocaine, amphetamines and ecstasy; cannabinoids; benzodiazepine based drugs; dissociatives similar to ketamine and phencyclidine (PCP); and those modelled after classic hallucinogens such as LSD and psilocybin. Pharmacodynamic actions, subjective and physical effects, harmfulness, risk of dependency and, where appropriate, putative clinical potentials are described for each class. Clinicians might encounter NPS in various ways: anecdotal reportage; acute intoxication; as part of a substance misuse profile; and as a precipitant or perpetuating factor for longer-term physical and psychological ill health. Current data are overall limited, and much of our knowledge and treatment strategies are based upon those of the ‘parent’ compound. There is a critical need for more research in this field, and for professionals to make themselves more aware of this growing issue and how it might affect those we see clinically and try to help: a brave new world of so-called ‘psychonauts’ consuming NPS will also need informed ‘psychotherapeutonauts’. The paper should serve as a primer for clinicians and interested readers, as well as provide a framework into which to place the new substances that will inevitably be synthesized in the future.
Zhuk, O., Jasicka-Misiak, I., Poliwoda, A., Kazakova, A., Godovan, V. V., Halama, M., & Wieczorek, P. P. (2015). Research on acute toxicity and the behavioral effects of methanolic extract from psilocybin mushrooms and psilocin in mice. Toxins
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3390/toxins7041018
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“The pharmacological activities and acute toxicity of the psilocin (PC) and dried residues of the crude extracts of psychotropic mushrooms were investigated in mice. The hallucinogenic substances were effectively isolated, by using methanol, from the species of Psilocybe semilanceata and Pholiotina cyanopus, that were collected in the north-east region of Poland. The chemical analysis of these extracts, which was performed by liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry detection (LC-MS), indicated the presence of psilocin and other hallucinogenic substances, including indolealkylamines and their phosphorylated analogues. When the pure psilocin or fungal extracts were used, slight differences in determined LD50 values were observed. However, the application of PC evoked the highest level of toxicity (293.07 mg/kg) compared to the activity of extracts from Ph. cyanopus and P. semilanceata, where the level of LD50 was 316.87 mg/kg and 324.37 mg/kg, respectively. Furthermore, the behavioral test, which considered the head-twitching response (HTR), was used to assess the effects of the studied psychotropic factors on the serotonergic system. Both, the fungal extracts and psilocin evoked characteristic serotoninergic effects depending on the dose administered to mice, acting as an agonist/partial agonist on the serotonergic system. A dose of 200 mg/kg 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) induced spontaneous head-twitching in mice (100% effect), as a result of the formation of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) in the brain. Compared to the activity of 5-HTP, the intraperitoneal administration of 1mg/kg of psilocin or hallucinogenic extracts of studied mushrooms (Ph. cyanopus and P. semilanceata) reduced the number of head-twitch responses of about 46% and 30%, respectively. In contrast, the administration of PC exhibited a reduction of about 60% in HTR numbers.
R, C. -H. (2015). Results: of a multi-modal neuroimaging study of LSD and a psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression clinical trial. In Neuropsychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/npp.2015.324
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“Background: Our research team have conducted a series of MRI and MEG studies with the 5HT2A receptor agonist psilocybin in comparison with MDMA, an entactogen that releases 5HT. The MRI studies of psilocybin (both ASL and fMRI) revealed unexpected reduction in brain blood flow and a decrease in BOLD signal (Carhart-Harris et al 2013 PNAS) in high-level cortical regions and the thalamus, with post-hoc analysis showing large increases in brain connectivity between, rather than within, the usual resting state networks (Petri et al J Roy Soc 2014). The cortical psilocybin MRI findings were confirmed by a later MEG study that revealed a major loss of power in all measured frequency bands (1-100Hz) after psilocybin with decreases in alpha power in the posterior cingulate cortex correlating with egodissolution measures (Carhart-Harris and Muthukumaraswamy et al 2013 J Neurosci). Results from the fMRI and MEG work suggested psilocybin has antidepressant properties and from these we are now conducting the first study of psilocybin in resistant depression. Data from a pilot phase will be ready for the ACNP meeting. MDMA also decreased blood flow and BOLD signal but the effects were largely subcortical, particularly in the amygdala, and no psychedelic effects were seen (Carhart-Harris et al 2014 Biol Psych). Negative memories were attenuated and positive ones enhanced by MDMA and these effects were associated with fMRI-measured changes in brain activity (Carhart-Harris et al 2013 Int Neuropychopharm). LSD is the prototypical hallucinogen, with much greater use than the others in psychiatric and research settings, with over 1000 papers published before it was banned in 1967. Since then, and only in the past year, there have been 3 research reports, but none using modern brain imaging methods. Methods: Over the course of 6 hours, 20 healthy volunteers were scanned sequentially with ASL/BOLD-fMRI/ and MEG following 75 microgm LSD iv or saline placebo in a crossover design at least 2 weeks apart. Subjective ratings of psychedelic experiences were then correlated with the imaging data. Twelve patients with resistant depression were treated with two sessions of psilocybin. Significant improvements in symptom severity were observed for up to 5 weeks post-treatment, with a far greater before and (1 week) after treatment effect size (Cohen’s d = 3.4) than seen with currently available anti-depressant interventions. Results: LSD decreased integrity and segregation of brain networks and this effect correlated with subjective ratings of changes in consciousness, including ego-dissolution. Increased functional connectivity between the visual cortex and high-level cortical regions correlated strongly with ratings of visual hallucinations. Patients treated with psilocybin for resistant depression have shown marked improvements in the symptom severity post-treatment. Conclusions: The LSD data and our three prior psilocybin studies show that 5HT2A agonist hallucinogens provoke profound changes in consciousness due to decreased integrity of brain networks and a decrease in betweennetwork segregation found in resting state measures, leading to a more chaotic or “entropic” brain state. These effects may also explain the utility of these drugs in addiction and mood disorders. The psilocybin for depression findings suggest that psilocybin is a safe and effective treatment for severe depression.
Borovička, J., Oborník, M., Stříbrný, J., Noordeloos, M. E., Parra Sánchez, L., & Gryndler, M. (2015). Phylogenetic and chemical studies in the potential psychotropic species complex of. Persoonia
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1056/NEJM198310133091503
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“Five Psilocybe species with unresolved systematic position (P. atrobrunnea, P. laetissima, P. medul- losa, P. pelliculosa, and P. silvatica) were investigated using four molecular markers (EF1?α, ITS, LSU, and IGS). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that with the exception of P. laetissima, which is now rightfully classified in the genus Leratiomyces, all investigated species belong to Psilocybe sect. Psilocybe. For the first time, psychotropic compounds psilocin and psilocybin were detected in P. medullosa using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. On the contrary, neither psilocin, nor psilocybin was detected in P. atrobrunnea and negative results were also obtained from mycelia grown in vitro on tryptamine/tryptophan-amended media. These results strongly suggest that biosynthesis of these alkaloids was lost in P. atrobrunnea. With the exception of minor differences detected in EF1?α marker, all sequences of American and European collections of P. atrobrunnea were identical. On the other hand, a thorough nomenclatural study revealed that the name P. atrobrunnea must be considered dubious; the oldest available candidate name, P. fuscofulva, was therefore adopted. The molecular data suggests that morphologically identical American P. silvatica and European P. medullosa likely represent distinct species; epitypes of both taxa were therefore designated. Article
Dawson, A. S. (2015). Salvador Roquet, Maria Sabina, and the Trouble with Jipis. Hispanic American Historical Review
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1215/00182168-2836928
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“While Maria Sabina has long been an iconic figure among drug enthusiasts\nand advocates for indigenous rights, her sometime collaborator Salvador\nRoquet remains largely unknown. This essay introduces the work of this\niconoclastic psychiatrist and, in particular, his work with Sabina,\nhighlighting their contributions to the world of psychedelic psychiatry\nand exploring the nature of their exchanges. Beyond examining the\ncontours of the therapeutic method Roquet developed in part due to\nSabina’s teachings, the essay argues that their work together offers us\na fascinating example of cross-cultural collaboration. Moreover, their\nmutual disdain for jipis introduces an alternative history of\npsychedelic drugs in Mexico-one in which the counterculture acted as a\nfoil to those who believed that local, naturally occurring psychedelics\nlike psilocybin mushrooms, peyote, datura, and ololiuqui were powerful\nmedicines that needed to be respected, handled by experts, and used in\ncarefully prescribed ways.
Garcia-Romeu, A. P., Noorani, T., Griffiths, R. R., & Johnson, M. W. (2015). Long-term follow-up of psilocybin-facilitated smoking cessation: Abstinence outcomes and qualitative analysis of participant accounts. Drug And Alcohol Dependence
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.07.1130
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“See, stats, and: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284070039 Long- term- up-facilitated smoking : Abstinence qualitative .. Article DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.07.1130 CITATIONS 0 READS 193 4 : Some : Johns Johns Albert -Romeu Johns 18 SEE Tehseen New 9 SEE Roland Johns 405 , 396 SEE Matthew Johns 121 , 872 SEE All . The .
Borovička, J., Oborník, M., Stříbrný, J., Noordeloos, M. E., Sánchez, L. A. P., & Gryndler, M. (2015). Phylogenetic and chemical studies in the potential psychotropic species complex of <I>Psilocybe atrobrunnea</I> with taxonomic and nomenclatural notes. Persoonia – Molecular Phylogeny And Evolution Of Fungi
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3767/003158515X685283
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“Five Psilocybe species with unresolved systematic position (P. atrobrunnea, P. laetissima, P. medul- losa, P. pelliculosa, and P. silvatica) were investigated using four molecular markers (EF1α, ITS, LSU, and IGS). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that with the exception of P. laetissima, which is now rightfully classified in the genus Leratiomyces, all investigated species belong to Psilocybe sect. Psilocybe. For the first time, psychotropic compounds psilocin and psilocybin were detected in P. medullosa using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. On the contrary, neither psilocin, nor psilocybin was detected in P. atrobrunnea and negative results were also obtained from mycelia grown in vitro on tryptamine/tryptophan-amended media. These results strongly suggest that biosynthesis of these alkaloids was lost in P. atrobrunnea. With the exception of minor differences detected in EF1α marker, all sequences of American and European collections of P. atrobrunnea were identical. On the other hand, a thorough nomenclatural study revealed that the name P. atrobrunnea must be considered dubious; the oldest available candidate name, P. fuscofulva, was therefore adopted. The molecular data suggests that morphologically identical American P. silvatica and European P. medullosa likely represent distinct species; epitypes of both taxa were therefore designated.
Van Hell, H. H., Broyd, S., Greenwood, L., Croft, R., & Solowij, N. (2015). P6.d.018 Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) alone and in combination affect brain activity during rest. European Neuropsychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0924-977X(15)30879-8
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“S621 4-AcO-DMT, 1 as 4-OH-DMT (psilocin) and 1 as an unknown substance. Totally 48 samples were presented as 4-AcO-DMT: apart from the aforementioned 46 samples another 2 samples were presented as 4-AcO-DMT were no substance was found. In 37 samples containing 4-AcO-DMT (77.08%) presence of 4-OH-DMT was also found. From 2009 to 2010 9 samples were delivered as 4-AcO-DMT, 16 from 2011 to 2012 and 23 from 2013 to 2014 4-AcO-DMT was the 24th most handled substance during the whole period and representing 62.33% (48 out of 77) of the psilocin related substances [4-AcO-DMT (n = 48), mushrooms (n = 12), 4-AcO-DIPT (n = 12), 4-AcO-MIPT (n = 1) and psilocybin (n = 1)]. Conclusion and Discussion: Results show a recent increase in 4-Aco-DMT analysis that could translate a progressive rise in its recreational use gaining ground to other regulated tryptamines. Whether psilocin found on samples is a result of adulteration, degradation or an analytical artefact should be further studied. Clinical relevance comes from its growing use and the absence of scientific evidence on humans, not even a case report, therefore relying on users subjective experience to predict the effects of the substance. Awareness should be raised to clinicians and scientist in order to promote evidence on this substance clinical effects as well as epidemiological data at a larger scale. References [1] Papaseit, E., Farré, M., Schifano, F., Torrens, M., 2014. Emerging drugs in Europe. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 27, 243−50. [2] EMCDDA 2015. New psychoactive substances in Europe. An update from the EU Early Warning System. Lisbon. [3] Nichols, D., Frescas, S., 1999. Improvements to the Synthesis of Psilocybin and a Facile Method for Preparing the O-Acetyl Prodrug of Psilocin. Synthesis 6, 935–938. [4] Hill S., Thomas S., 2011. Clinical toxicology of newer recreational drugs. Clinical Toxicology 49, 705–719. Disclosure statement: Supported in part by grants of Instituto de Salud Carlos III-FEDER (RTA RD12/0028/0009), and The European Commission (Drug Prevention and Information Programme 2014−16, contract no.: JUST/2013/DPIP/AG/4823, EU-MADNESS project). Liliana Galindo is a Rio Hortega fellowship (ISC-III CM14/00111).
Tittarelli, R., Mannocchi, G., Pantano, F., & Romolo, F. (2015). Recreational Use, Analysis and Toxicity of Tryptamines. Current Neuropharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.2174/1570159X13666141210222409
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“UNLABELLED: The definition New psychoactive substances (NPS) refers to emerging drugs whose chemical structures are similar to other psychoactive compounds but not identical, representing a “legal” alternative to internationally controlled drugs. There are many categories of NPS, such as synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones, phenylethylamines, piperazines, ketamine derivatives and tryptamines. Tryptamines are naturally occurring compounds, which can derive from the amino acid tryptophan by several biosynthetic pathways: their structure is a combination of a benzene ring and a pyrrole ring, with the addition of a 2-carbon side chain. Tryptamines include serotonin and melatonin as well as other compounds known for their hallucinogenic properties, such as psilocybin in ‘Magic mushrooms’ and dimethyltryptamine (DMT) in Ayahuasca brews.\n\nAIM: To review the scientific literature regarding tryptamines and their derivatives, providing a summary of all the available information about the structure of these compounds, their effects in relationship with the routes of administration, their pharmacology and toxicity, including articles reporting cases of death related to intake of these substances.\n\nMETHODS: A comprehensive review of the published scientific literature was performed, using also non peer-reviewed information sources, such as books, government publications and drug user web fora.\n\nCONCLUSIONS: Information from Internet and from published scientific literature, organized in the way we proposed in this review, provides an effective tool for specialists facing the emerging NPS threat to public health and public security, including the personnel working in Emergency Department.
Sohn, C. H. (2015). Type and treatment of toxic mushroom poisoning in Korea. Journal Of The Korean Medical Association
Plain numerical DOI: 10.5124/jkma.2015.58.9.818
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“To eat unidentified or misidentified mushrooms taken from the wild can be very dangerous. In the vast majority of toxic mushroom ingestions in Korea, the mushroom was incorrectly identified. In general, poisoning of toxic mushrooms can be classified into seven types according to the toxins that they contain; amatoxin, gyromitrin, coprine, muscarine, ibotenic acid-muscimol, psilocybin-psilocin and gastrointestinal irritants. When clinicians care for a patient who ingested a toxic mushroom, it is very important to identify what kind of mushroom may have caused a patient’s illness. But, in clinical practice, accurate botanical identification of the mushroom can be very difficult. Therefore, for estimating the caused mushroom and adequate treatment of poisoning, clinicians should know the type and treatment of toxic mushroom poisoning.
Bogenschutz, M. P., Forcehimes, A. A., Pommy, J. A., Wilcox, C. E., Barbosa, P. C. R., & Strassman, R. J. (2015). Psilocybin-assisted treatment for alcohol dependence: A proof-of-concept study. Journal Of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881114565144
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“Several lines of evidence suggest that classic (5HT2A agonist) hallucinogens have clinically relevant effects in alcohol and drug addiction. Although recent studies have investigated the effects of psilocybin in various populations, there have been no studies on the efficacy of psilocybin for alcohol dependence. We conducted a single-group proof-of-concept study to quantify acute effects of psilocybin in alcohol-dependent participants and to provide preliminary outcome and safety data. Ten volunteers with DSM-IV alcohol dependence received orally administered psilocybin in one or two supervised sessions in addition to Motivational Enhancement Therapy and therapy sessions devoted to preparation for and debriefing from the psilocybin sessions. Participants’ responses to psilocybin were qualitatively similar to those described in other populations. Abstinence did not increase significantly in the first 4 weeks of treatment (when participants had not yet received psilocybin), but increased significantly following psilocybin administration (p < 0.05). Gains were largely maintained at follow-up to 36 weeks. The intensity of effects in the first psilocybin session (at week 4) strongly predicted change in drinking during weeks 5–8 (r = 0.76 to r = 0.89) and also predicted decreases in craving and increases in abstinence self- efficacy during week 5. There were no significant treatment-related adverse events. These preliminary findings provide a strong rationale for controlled trials with larger samples to investigate efficacy and mechanisms
Griffiths, R. (2015). A single dose of psilocybin produces substantial and enduring decreases in anxiety and depression in patients with a life-threatening cancer diagnosis: a randomized double-blind trial. Neuropsychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/npp.2015.324
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“This article focuses on the relationship between university research (in this case science research) and national economic productivity, particularly in the context of the emerging knowledge economy. It addresses the question of whether university research output should be treated as a public good or a private good, in economic terms, and analyses this question using the tool of game theory. The analysis also draws out the implications both for universities and for governments of treating science as one type of good instead of another. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of Higher Education Management & Policy is the property of Organisation for Economic Cooperation & Development and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts) This article focuses on the relationship between university research (in this case science research) and national economic productivity, particularly in the context of the emerging knowledge economy. It addresses the question of whether university research output should be treated as a public good or a private good, in economic terms, and analyses this question using the tool of game theory. The analysis also draws out the implications both for universities and for governments of treating science as one type of good instead of another. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of Higher Education Management & Policy is the property of Organisation for Economic Cooperation & Development and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Sakashita, Y., Abe, K., Katagiri, N., Kambe, T., Saitoh, T., Utsunomiya, I., et al. (2015). Effect of Psilocin on Extracellular Dopamine and Serotonin Levels in the Mesoaccumbens and Mesocortical Pathway in Awake Rats. Biological ^|^ Pharmaceutical Bulletin
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b14-00315
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“Psilocin (3-[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl]-1H-indol-4-ol) is a hallucinogenic component of the Mexican mushroom Psilocybe mexicana and a skeletal serotonin (5-HT) analogue. Psilocin is the active metabolite of psilocybin (3-[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl]-1H-indol-4-yl dihydrogen phosphate). In the present study, we examined the effects of systemically administered psilocin on extracellular dopamine and 5-HT concentrations in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), nucleus accumbens, and medial prefrontal cortex of the dopaminergic pathway in awake rats using in vivo microdialysis. Intraperitoneal administration of psilocin (5, 10 mg/kg) significantly increased extracellular dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens. Psilocin did not affect the extracellular 5-HT level in the nucleus accumbens. Conversely, systemic administration of psilocin (10 mg/kg) significantly increased extracellular 5-HT levels in the medial prefrontal cortex of rats, but dopamine was decreased in this region. However, neither extracellular dopamine nor 5-HT levels in the VTA were altered by administration of psilocin. Behaviorally, psilocin significantly increased the number of head twitches. Thus, psilocin affects the dopaminergic system in the nucleus accumbens. In the serotonergic system, psilocin contribute to a crucial effect in the medial prefrontal cortex. The present data suggest that psilocin increased both the extracellular dopamine and 5-HT concentrations in the mesoaccumbens and/or mesocortical pathway.
2014
Turton, S., Nutt, D. J. J., & Carhart-Harris, R. L. L. (2014). A qualitative report on the subjective experience of intravenous psilocybin administered in an FMRI environment . Curr Drug Abuse Rev
Plain numerical DOI: 10.2174/1874473708666150107120930
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“Background: This report documents the phenomenology of the subjective experiences of 15 healthy psychedelic experienced volunteers who were involved in a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study that was designed to image the brain effects of intravenous psilocybin. Methods: The participants underwent a semi-structured interview exploring the effects of psilocybin in the MRI scanner. These interviews were analysed by Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. The resultant data is ordered in a detailed matrix, and presented in this paper. Results: Nine broad categories of phenomenology were identified in the phenomenological analysis of the experience; perceptual changes including visual, auditory and somatosensory distortions, cognitive changes, changes in mood, effects of memory, spiritual or mystical type experiences, aspects relating to the scanner and research environment, comparisons with other experiences, the intensity and onset of effects, and individual interpretation of the experience. Discussion: This article documents the phenomenology of psilocybin when given in a novel manner (intravenous injection) and setting (an MRI scanner). The findings of the analysis are consistent with previous published work regarding the subjective effects of psilocybin. There is much scope for further research investigating the phenomena identified in this paper.
Umit Sayin, H. (2014). The consumption of psychoactive plants during religious rituals: The roots of common symbols and figures in religions and myths. Neuroquantology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.14704/nq.2014.12.2.753
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“Psychoactive plants which contain hallucinogenic molecules that induce a form of altered states of consciousness (HASC) have been widely used during the religious rituals of many cultures throughout the centuries, while the consumption of these plants for spiritual and religious purposes is as old as human history. Some of those cultures were shaman and pagan subcultures; African native religions; Bwiti Cult; South American native religions; Amazon Cultures; Central American Cultures; Mexican subcultures; Aztec, Maya and Inca; Wiccan and witch subcultures; Satanists; American Indians; Greek and Hellenistic cultures; Sufis; Hassan Sabbah’s Hashissins; Hindu, Indian and Tibetan cultures; some of the Nordic subcultures etc. Some of the psychoactive ingredients of the plants that were used during these religious rituals were; narcotic analgesics (opium), THC (cannabis), psilocybin (magic mushrooms), mescaline (peyote), ibogaine (Tabernanthe iboga), DMT (Ayahuasca and phalaris species), Peganum harmala, bufotenin, muscimol (Amanita muscaria), thujone (absinthe, Arthemisia absinthium), ephedra, mandragora, star lotus, Salvia divinorum etc. The main purposes of the practice of these plants were: spiritual healing; to contact with spirits; to contact with the souls of ancestors; to reach enlightenment (Nirvana or Satori); to become a master shaman, pagan or witch; to reach so-called-other realities, etc. Such “psychedelic-philosophical plant rituals” changed participating persons’ psychology, philosophy and personality to a great degree. In these two successive articles, the consumption of psychedelic plants during religious rituals is reviewed and it is hypothesized that the images, figures, illusions and hallucinations experienced during these “plant trips” had a great impact on the formation and creation of many figures, characters, creatures, archetype images that exist not only in the mythology, but also in many religions, as well, such as angels, demons, Satan, mythological creatures, gods, goddesses etc. In the Middle East and Anatolia, within many hermetic and pagan religions, Greek and Hellenic cultures psychoactive plant use was a serious part of the religious rituals, such as Dionysian rituals or Witch’s’ Sabbaths. Although the impact of the “psychedelic experience and imagination” was enormous to the configuration of many religious and mythological characters, and archetypes, this fact has been underestimated and even unnoticed by many historians and anthropologists, because of the quasi-ethical trends of “anti-drug-brain-washed Western Societies”.
Carod Artal, F. J. (2014). Adverse Neurological Effects Caused by the Ingestion of Plants, Seeds, and Fruits. In Bioactive Nutraceuticals and Dietary Supplements in Neurological and Brain Disease: Prevention and Therapy
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-411462-3.00023-0
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“Some plants and seeds used for nutritional and healing purposes can cause neurotoxic symptoms. In tropical regions, several neurological syndromes have been associated with the ingestion of toxic plants such as wild cassava (konzo), Lathyrus sativus (neurolathyrism), Blighia sapida (Jamaican vomiting sickness), Cycad (parkinsonism-dementia-amyotrophic lateral sclerosis complex of Guam island), and Annonaceae (Guadalupe island parkinsonism). Chronic use of kava-kava, aconite, and Callilepis laureola can also cause neurotoxicity. Jimson weed, mandrake, and hemlock are relatively common causes of plant-based accidental poisoning. Catharantus roseus, Podophyllum humboldtiana, and Karwinskia pelatum can cause peripheral neuropathy. Ayahuasca, a hallucinogenic drink obtained from Pychotropia viridis and Banisteriopsis caapi, contains dimethyl-tryptamine and beta-carboline alkaloids. Mushrooms such as Psilocybe and Stropharia contain the hallucinogenic alkaloid psilocybin. Claviceps purpurea contains ergotoxic alkaloids and lysergic acid. Arthrinium sp often contaminates cereals and sugar cane and causes a neurotoxic syndrome mediated by mycotoxins.
Rambousek, L., Palenicek, T., Vales, K., & Stuchlik, A. (2014). The Effect of Psilocin on Memory Acquisition, Retrieval, and Consolidation in the Rat. Frontiers In Behavioral Neuroscience
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00180
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“The involvement of the serotonin system in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia has been elucidated by experiments with hallucinogens. Application of a hallucinogen to humans leads to changes in perception, cognition, emotions, and induction of psychotic-like symptoms that resemble symptoms of schizophrenia. In rodent studies, their acute administration affects sensorimotor gating, locomotor activity, social behavior, and cognition including working memory, the phenotypes are considered as an animal model of schizophrenia. The complexity and singularity of human cognition raises questions about the validity of animal models utilizing agonists of 5-HT2A receptors. The present study thus investigated the effect of psilocin on memory acquisition, reinforced retrieval, and memory consolidation in rats. Psilocin is a main metabolite of psilocybin acting as an agonist at 5-HT2A receptors with a contribution of 5-HT2C and 5-HT1A receptors. First, we tested the effect of psilocin on the acquisition of a Carousel maze, a spatial task requiring navigation using distal cues, attention, and cognitive coordination. Psilocin significantly impaired the acquisition of the Carousel maze at both doses (1 and 4 mg/kg). The higher dose of psilocin blocked the learning processes even in an additional session when the rats received only saline. Next, we examined the effect of psilocin on reinforced retrieval and consolidation in the Morris water maze (MWM). The dose of 4 mg/kg disrupted reinforced retrieval in the MWM. However, the application of a lower dose was without any significant effect. Finally, neither the low nor high dose of psilocin injected post-training caused a deficit in memory consolidation in the MWM. Taken together, the psilocin dose dependently impaired the acquisition of the Carousel maze and reinforced retrieval in MWM; however, it had no effect on memory consolidation.
Bernasconi, F., Schmidt, A., Pokorny, T., Kometer, M., Seifritz, E., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2014). Spatiotemporal brain dynamics of emotional face processing modulations induced by the serotonin 1A/2A receptor agonist psilocybin. Cerebral Cortex
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bht178
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“Emotional face processing is critically modulated by the serotonergic system. For instance, emotional face processing is impaired by acute psilocybin administration, a serotonin (5-HT) 1A and 2A receptor agonist. However, the spatiotemporal brain mechanisms underlying these modulations are poorly understood. Here, we investigated the spatiotemporal brain dynamics underlying psilocybin-induced modulations during emotional face processing. Electrical neuroimaging analyses were applied to visual evoked potentials in response to emotional faces, following psilocybin and placebo administration. Our results indicate a first time period of strength (i.e., Global Field Power) modulation over the 168-189 ms poststimulus interval, induced by psilocybin. A second time period of strength modulation was identified over the 211-242 ms poststimulus interval. Source estimations over these 2 time periods further revealed decreased activity in response to both neutral and fearful faces within limbic areas, including amygdala and parahippocampal gyrus, and the right temporal cortex over the 168-189 ms interval, and reduced activity in response to happy faces within limbic and right temporo-occipital brain areas over the 211-242 ms interval. Our results indicate a selective and temporally dissociable effect of psilocybin on the neuronal correlates of emotional face processing, consistent with a modulation of the top-down control.
Jacobson, R. (2014). Mystical Medicine. Scientific American Mind
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/scientificamericanmind0914-24
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“The article reports that researchers are once again focusing therapeutic potential psychedelic agents which are likely to help in treating mental heal issues like anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and addiction. It also focuses on the impact of restrictive government policies regarding psychedelic agents like LSD, psilocybin and cannabis, on the research.
Nichols, D. E., Johnson, M., Griffiths, R. R., & Henningfield, J. (2014). The path toward making psilocybin available for medical use: New findings and analyses related to abuse potential and safety. American College of Neuropsychopharmacology (ACNP) 53rd Annual Meeting
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/npp.2014.282
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“Background: Psilocybin has been used and studied for more than one-half century as a treatment for various mental disorders including anxiety, depression, and substance dependence in the United States and several other countries. Since its regulation as a schedule I (CI) controlled substance under the 1970 United States Controlled Substances Act (CSA), however, there have been severe constraints on its use in research. In brief, schedule I is the CSA placement for drugs that (a) have a high potential for abuse, (b) are not approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for medical use, and (c) have not been found acceptably safe for use under medical supervision. Clinical research and other research since the 1990s suggests that psilocybin has important medicinal benefits, can be safely administered, and is characterized by a relatively low abuse and physical dependence potential profile compared to schedule II and III opioids, stimulants, and depressants. The potential indication under recent study is severe anxiety/depression secondary to cancer diagnosis in patients who are refractory to standard care options. The therapeutic approach would likely involve no more than two doses to be administered in controlled settings by specially trained staff. This poster will summarize clinical and nonclinical studies relevant to abuse potential evaluation according to the CSA 8 factor assessment tool, including new data and analyses. The poster will also present an evaluation of original data from several completed studies, and preliminary results from ongoing studies that are relevant to evaluation of safety. Methods: Several Phase I and Phase II studies were conducted and are ongoing, including administration of psilocybin at various dose levels to healthy volunteers to evaluate the pharmacodynamics and efficacy in several potential therapeutic applications in people with various psychiatric disorders. Adverse event data across studies were coded using metrics similar to those used in safety and efficacy clinical trials for other CNS drugs. All of the clinical studies were conducted under Investigational New Drug applications and with Institutional Review Board approval at academic medical centers. Doses ranged from 14 mg/70 kg to 30 mg/70 kg, given at intervals of at least one week, usually twice, and never more than three times per volunteer. The test session rooms were supportive therapeutic settings. Trained counselors monitored events, recorded data, and offered reassurance. Several of the studies included double-blind comparisons to placebo and one study included 40 mg/70 mg methylphenidate as a comparator drug. More than 200 volunteers have been exposed to at least one, and more typically to two or three doses of psilocybin in the Heffter Research Institute collaborative studies. Safety data evaluations are ongoing and data from many/most of these exposures will be presented. Results: Results that have been collected (and in some cases presented or published at the time this abstract was developed) included the following: (1) Psilocybin at all doses was generally well tolerated, resulting in no serious adverse events requiring emergency interventions, (2) Psilocybin did not produce effects that were readily characterized as either sedating or stimulating but rather induced a unique profile of effects characterized by perceptual changes (e.g. visual illusions), labile mood (e.g. feelings of transcendence, grief, joy, and/or anxiety), and cognitive changes (e.g. a sense of meaning or insight). (3) Follow-up evaluations at one to 14 months revealed lasting effects, with psilocybin sessions generally described in positive terms as among the most meaningful events of the person’s lifetime, with resulting increases in spirituality and quality of life indicating improvements that were persistent; (4) initial findings in cancer patients suggest reductions in anxiety and depression symptoms. A preliminary evaluation of the eight factors of the CSA for the purpose of developing a drug scheduling recommendation included analysis of chemistry, pharmacology, preclinical data, epidemiology, and other clinical evidence. The analysis supports a plausible recommendation for CSA regulation as a schedule IV drug. Conclusions: Taken together, these findings suggest potential therapeutic efficacy for symptoms of anxiety and depression secondary to cancer diagnosis in patients refractory to standard care. Medical risks and side-effects were generally mild and manageable by study staff. The evidence does not suggest a high risk of abuse or dependence. A potential application for approval would include a Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS) that would likely restrict distribution directly to the health care providers (HCPs), limit dosing, require certification that HCPs had been appropriately trained, and would include appropriate evaluation and follow-up of all patients.
Law, F. C. P., Poon, G., Y.C.Chui,, & He, S. -X. (2014). C-Psilocin tissue distribution in pregnant rats after intravenous administration. Functional Foods In Health And Disease, Vol 4, Iss 6, Pp 232-244 (2014) Vo – 4
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“Background: Many species of hallucinogenic mushrooms have been found in the genus Psilocybe. The main psychoactive chemicals of Psilocybe mushrooms are psilocin and its phosphoryloxy derivative, psilocybin. In addition to its psychedelic effects, psilocybin is an effective agent to lift the mood of depressed patients with terminal cancers. Objective: To study the dispositional kinetics of 14C-psilocin in pregnant rats after intravenous injection, to calculate tissue dose surrogates i.e., tissue 14C concentration and area under the concentration-time curve using the experimental data, to quantify trans-placental passage of psilocin and/or its metabolites, and to identify new psilocin metabolite(s) in rat urine. Methods: A group of 15 pregnant Wistar rats weighing between 0.30-0.36 kg was used in the study. Each rat was given a single dose of 7.5 mg/kg 14C-psilocin i.v. Three rats were randomly selected and sacrificed at 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, and 8.0 hr post-dosing. The maternal and fetal tissues were quickly removed and the radioactivity in these tissues determined by liquid scintillation counting. In a separate study, urine samples were collected from 6 male Wistar rats after administering 15 mg/kg of unlabeled psilocin i.p. The urine samples were collected and extracted by chloroform-methanol (9:1 v/v) and analyzed using a gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer. Results: 14C-Psilocin crossed the placental barrier of pregnant rats readily after i.v. administration; maternal tissue 14C concentrations were found to be much higher than those in fetal tissues. The areas under the curve for maternal tissues also were much higher than the fetal tissues. In general, maternal tissues could be divided into the fast eliminating organ group, which included the brain (elimination half-life <13 hr) and the slow eliminating organ group, which included all fetal tissues (elimination half-life >13 hr). A new psilocin metabolite tentatively identified as dihydroxyindoleacetic acid was found in the urine. Conclusion: Our study showed that psilocin readily crossed the placental and blood-brain barriers of pregnant rats. Because psilocin was eliminated slowly from the fetal tissues of rats, human consumption of magic mushrooms should be avoided during pregnancy.
Peredy, T., & Bradford, H. (2014). Mushroom, Psilocybin. In Encyclopedia of Toxicology: Third Edition
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-386454-3.00759-4
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“Psilocybin (O-phosphoryl-4-hydroxy- N,. N-dimethyltryptamine) and related compounds have been isolated from more than 150 species of mushroom but are primarily found in the following genera: Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Gymnopilus. The species most commonly referenced in the literature are: Psilocybe cubensis, Psilocybe mexicana, Psilocybe cyanescens, Psilocybe semilanceata; Panaeolus foenisecii; Gymnopilus spectabilis; Psathyrella foenisecii. The family of psilocybin-containing mushrooms grows in tropical and subtropical regions of South America, Mexico, and the United States. Hallucinogenic varieties of Psilocybe were used by prehistoric peoples for religious and healing purposes. Today most individuals consuming psilocybin mushrooms are intentionally seeking a psychedelic experience.
Petri, G., Expert, P., Turkheimer, F., Carhart-Harris, R., Nutt, D., Hellyer, P. J., & Vaccarino, F. (2014). Homological scaffolds of brain functional networks. Journal Of The Royal Society Interface
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2014.0873
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“Networks, as efficient representations of complex systems, have appealed to scientists for a long time and now permeate many areas of science, including neuroimaging (Bullmore and Sporns 2009 Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 10, 186–198. (doi:10.1038/nrn2618)). Traditionally, the structure of complex networks has been studied through their statistical properties and metrics concerned with node andlinkproperties, e.g. degree-distribution, node centralityandmodular- ity. Here, we study the characteristics of functional brain networks at the mesoscopic level from a novel perspective that highlights the role of inhomo- geneities in the fabric of functional connections. This can be done by focusing on the features of a set of topological objects—homological cycles—associated with the weighted functional network. We leverage the detected topological information to define the homological scaffolds, a new set of objects designed to represent compactly the homological features of the correlation network and simultaneouslymake theirhomological properties amenable tonetworks theor- eticalmethods. As a proof ofprinciple,we apply these tools to compare resting- state functionalbrainactivity in 15healthyvolunteers after intravenous infusion of placebo and psilocybin—the main psychoactive component of magic mush- rooms. The results showthat the homological structure of the brain’s functional patterns undergoes a dramatic change post-psilocybin, characterized by the appearance of many transient structures of low stability and of a small number of persistent ones that are not observed in the case of placebo.
Palenicek, T., Tyls, F., Fujakova, M., Kubesova, A., Novakova, P., Kaderabek, L., et al. (2014). EPA-0137 – EEG power spectra and connectivity changes in animal serotonergic and glutamatergic models of psychosis – implications for treatment. European Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0924-9338(14)77609-6
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“Pharmacological models of psychosis bring a unique tool for studying brain disconnection in humans as well as in animals. Even though several electrophysiological biomarkers have been already described in schizophrenia, little is known about EEG biomarkers in pharmacological models of psychosis and about the translational validity of these data. Studies on EEG brain connectivity in rodents under these circumstances are extremely rare. To elucidate the characteristic patterns of EEG connectivity in freely moving rats we have conducted a series of experiments in serotonergic and glutamatergic models of psychosis. Using multiple cortical electrodes, EEG spectral and connectivity analysis was performed on selected episodes of behavioral inactivity – a model of resting EEG. The analyses showed consistent changes that were specific for each of the models used. Glutamatergic models with ketamine and dizocilpin (MK-801) induced typical global increase in high frequency oscillations. On the contrary, in serotonergic models (psilocin, mescaline, LSD, DOB, 2C-B) a global power decrease was observed. A common denominator in both models was a global decrease in connectivity expressed as decreased coherence in most of the frequency bands. A translational validity of these findings is supported by findings in schizophrenia patients and by recent human studies with ketamine and psilocybin. Recently obtained results with drugs modulating serotonergic, dopaminergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission will be also discussed in the light of potential therapeutic implications. This work was supported by projects IGA MH CZ NT/13897 and DRO (PCP, 00023752), MI CZ VG20122015080 and VG20122015075, ECGA 278006.
Appendino, G., Minassi, A., & Taglialatela-Scafati, O. (2014). Recreational drug discovery: Natural products as lead structures for the synthesis of smart drugs. Natural Product Reports
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1039/c4np00010b
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“Covering: up to December 2013.Over the past decade, there has been a growing transition in recreational drugs from natural materials (marijuana, hashish, opium), natural products (morphine, cocaine), or their simple derivatives (heroin), to synthetic agents more potent than their natural prototypes, which are sometimes less harmful in the short term, or that combine properties from different classes of recreational prototypes. These agents have been named smart drugs, and have become popular both for personal consumption and for collective intoxication at rave parties. The reasons for this transition are varied, but are mainly regulatory and commercial. New analogues of known illegal intoxicants are invisible to most forensic detection techniques, while the alleged natural status and the lack of avert acute toxicity make them appealing to a wide range of users. On the other hand, the advent of the internet has made possible the quick dispersal of information among users and the on-line purchase of these agents and/or the precursors for their synthesis. Unlike their natural products chemotypes (ephedrine, mescaline, cathinone, psilocybin, THC), most new drugs of abuse are largely unfamiliar to the organic chemistry community as well as to health care providers. To raise awareness of the growing plague of smart drugs we have surveyed, in a medicinal chemistry fashion, their development from natural products leads, their current methods of production, and the role that clandestine home laboratories and underground chemists have played in the surge of popularity of these drugs.
Nichols, D. E. (2014). The Heffter Research Institute: Past and Hopeful Future. Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2014.873688
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“—This essay describes the founding of the Heffter Research Institute in 1993 and its develop-ment up to the present. The Institute is the only scientific research organization dedicated to scientific research into the medical value of psychedelics, and it has particularly focused on the use of psilocybin. The first clinical treatment study was of the value of psilocybin in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Next was a UCLA study of psilocybin to treat end-of-life distress in end-stage cancer patients. While that study was ongoing, a trial was started at Johns Hopkins University (JHU) to study the efficacy of psilocybin in treating anxiety and depression resulting from a cancer diagnosis. Following the suc-cessful completion of the UCLA project, a larger study was started at New York University, which is near completion. A pilot study of the value of psilocybin in treating alcoholism at the University of New Mexico also is nearing completion, with a larger two-site study being planned. Other studies underway involve the use of psilocybin in a smoking cessation program and a study of the effects of psilocybin in long-term meditators, both at JHU. The institute is now planning for a Phase 3 clinical trial of psilocybin to treat distress in end-stage cancer patients.
Jesse, R., & Griffi, R. R. (2014). PSILOCYBIN RESEARCH AT JOHNS HOPKINS: A 2014 REPORT. In Seeking the Sacred with Psychoactive Substances
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“Historically, currently, and cross-culturally, profound mystical experiences are often reported as benefi cially life-changing, and certain plants and chem-icals are reported as potent catalysts of those experiences. The research described here undertook to scientifi cally demonstrate a process using psilo-cybin that would occasion such events with high likelihood and reasonable safety. At least for individuals similar to those who have participated in the Hopkins psilocybin studies, we believe we can now confi rm that such a pro-cess exists and that it can yield at least some of the surmised benefi ts. This confi rmation derives from experiments in our laboratory with over 200 volunteers to date, each of whom has received at least one day-long session involving a large dose of psilocybin. Two-thirds or more of the volunteers reported one of their sessions as among the most meaningful ex-periences of their lives and attributed to it positive changes in their mood, be-haviors, and overall well-being. Most of the volunteers were psychologically and physically healthy, hallucinogen-naïve adults with some spiritual inter-est. Some were cancer patients seeking relief from psychological distress due to their diagnosis, and some were tobacco smokers, otherwise healthy, will-ing to try a cessation program including psilocybin sessions. The team’s work so far, listed in Table 3.1 , comprises seven laboratory studies, completed or in progress, and two Internet-based survey studies. The laboratory work has been conducted double-blind using methods in-tended to maintain the blind and to minimize expectancy effects, including obscuring design elements from the volunteers and most study staff. This research has been or will be reported in detail in scientifi c journal articles. In 4148-751-V2-2pass-003-r06.indd 29 4148-751-V2-2pass-003-r06.indd 29 Seeking the Sacred with Psychoactive Substances 30 this chapter, we summarize some of its most salient fi ndings, drawing from the data analyzed so far and our impressions of the program as a whole. Early in the course of our fi rst psilocybin experiment (Griffi ths et al., 2006), we were struck by the profound effect some of the sessions appeared to have on volunteers, an impact that the measures we were using did not really convey. We added two questions that asked volunteers to rate on a mul-tipoint scale how ” personally meaningful ” and how ” spiritually signifi cant ” their sessions were. Each item’s top two rating options are ” among the top fi ve of my life ” and ” the single most of my life. ” In the data collected with these scales, the ratings of ” personally meaningful ” and ” spiritually signif-icant ” correlated highly (r = 0.82 in the 2006 data); we can think of a core construct underlying these two questions as subjective importance. Using the new spiritual signifi cance question two months after a high dose of psilocybin, about two-thirds of the volunteers rated the session as among the top fi ve most spiritually signifi cant experiences of their lives, Table 3.1 Psilocybin Research at Johns Hopkins, 1999 to date (2014)
Hiebert, R. E., Taylor, M., Editor, B., Jr, J. F. B., Anderson, R., Broom, G., et al. (2014). Editorial Board. Advances In Medical Sciences
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S1896-1126(14)00030-3
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“Context: Researchers conducted extensive investigations of hallucinogens in the 1950s and 1960s. By the early 1970s, however, political and cultural pressures forced the cessation of all projects. This investigation reexamines a potentially promising clinical application of hallucinogens in the treatment of anxiety reactive to advanced-stage cancer. Objective: To explore the safety and efficacy of psilocybin in patients with advanced-stage cancer and reactive anxiety. Design: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of patients with advanced-stage cancer and anxiety, with subjects acting as their own control, using a moderate dose (0.2 mg/kg) of psilocybin. Setting: A clinical research unit within a large public sector academic medical center. Participants: Twelve adults with advanced-stage cancer and anxiety. Main Outcome Measures: In addition to monitoring safety and subjective experience before and during experimental treatment sessions, follow-up data including results from the Beck Depression Inventory, Profile of Mood States, and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory were collected unblinded for 6 months after treatment. Results: Safe physiological and psychological responses were documented during treatment sessions. There were no clinically significant adverse events with psilocybin. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory trait anxiety subscale demonstrated a significant reduction in anxiety at 1 and 3 months after treatment. The Beck Depression Inventory revealed an improvement of mood that reached significance at 6 months; the Profile of Mood States identified mood improvement after treatment with psilocybin that approached but did not reach significance. Conclusions: This study established the feasibility and safety of administering moderate doses of psilocybin to patients with advanced-stage cancer and anxiety. Some of the data revealed a positive trend toward improved mood and anxiety. These results support the need for more research in this long-neglected field.
Tupper, K. (2014). Entheogenic education: psychedelics as tools of wonder and awe . Maps Bulletin
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“Extract: British novelist and philosopher Aldous Huxley’s suggestion that a psychedelic substance such as mescaline may produce valuable learning experiences is a nicely articulated example of the concept of entheogenic education. Before Huxley’s expression of it, this idea was most clearly evident in the metaphor of “plant teachers” found in traditional indigenous knowledge and cultural practices involving psychoactive plants or preparations. Later, in some 1950s and 1960s psychedelic research, cognitive enhancement with substances such as LSD, mescaline and psilocybin was considered a promising avenue of inquiry. However, the educational potential of psychedelic or entheogenic substance use remains an area of study that has yet to be adequately explored.
M.P., B., A.A., F., J.A., P., C.E., W., & R., B. (2014). A pilot study of psilocybin-assisted treatment for alcohol dependence: Acute effects and short-termalcohol use, self-efficacy, and craving. Alcoholism: Clinical And Experimental Research
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“Purpose: Several lines of evidence suggest that classic hallucinogens may have clinically relevant effects in alcohol and drug addiction. A meta-analysis of controlled trials of LSD for alcoholismdemonstrated consistent benefits persisting to 6 months after treatment. Although recent studies have investigated the effects of psilocybin in various populations, there have been no studies on the efficacy of psilocybin for alcohol dependence. We conducted an open-label pilot study designed to establish an appropriate dose range for use of psilocybin in alcohol dependent participants, demonstrate the feasibility of the integrated behavioral/pharmacologic intervention, and provide preliminary outcome and safety data. Methods: Participants were 10 volunteers (4 women and 6 men) with DSM-IV alcohol dependence. They received 12 weekly psychosocial treatment sessions consisting of Motivational Enhancement Therapy as well as preparation for and debriefing from the psilocybin administration sessions. Psilocybin was administered at weeks 4 and 8. In the first session all participants received a dose of 0.3 mg/kg. Six participants received a dose of 0.4 mg/kg in the second session, one received 0.3 mg/kg, and three did not receive a second session. Results: Participants’ responses to psilocybin were qualitatively similar to those described in other populations, but there was considerable variation among participants in self-reported intensity of subjective experience. There were no significant treatment-related adverse events. Abstinence did not increase significantly in the firstmonth of treatment (when participants had not yet received psilocybin), but increased significantly during the second and third months of treatment (p<0.05). There were strong correlations (r>0.8) between the intensity and mystical quality of the experience in the first psilocybin session (at 4 weeks) and increased abstinence during weeks 5-8. The intensity of the week 4 experience was also highly correlated with decreases in craving and increases in abstinence self-efficacy during week 5. Conclusion: Participants in this open-label pilot study tolerated psilocybin well and drank less following treatment. The strength of the subjective experience with psilocybin was a strong predictor of improvement in drinking behavior as well as craving and self efficacy, suggesting possiblemechanisms of action. Controlled trials will be necessary to provide stronger evidence of efficacy andmechanisms.
Nutt, D. (2014). Help luck along to find psychiatric medicines. Nature
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/515165a
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“The author discusses a need for systemic research for development of psychiatric drugs. Topics include medicines for schizophrenia and psychotic symptoms, accidental discoveries and studies on drugs such as ketamine and psilocybin for depression, and patient-led approaches such as online sites and forums.
Tyls, F., Palenicek, T., Novakova, P., Kaderabek, L., Fujakova, M., Kubesova, A., & Horacek, J. (2014). P.4.022 The impact of serotonin system modulation on behavior and quantitative EEG in an animal model of psychosis induced by psilocin. European Neuropsychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0924-977X(14)70111-7
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“Introduction: Serotonergic hallucinogen psilocybin and its active metabolite psilocin are nowadays given a lot of attention in the scientific community as a research tool for modeling psychosis. First experiments assessing brain activity after psilocybin administration in humans using PET and fMRI found contradictory results [1,2]. More recently, a study measuring directly the neuronal activity using MEG confirmed massive inhibition of brain activity [3]. The aim of our animal study was to assess psilocin-induced changes in quantitative EEG (QEEG) in context of behavioral activity of rats and to explore the role of different serotonergic receptors in psilocin action. An effect of atypical antipsychotic clozapine on changes induced by psilocin was also evaluated. Methods: The substances used were: Psilocin (0.25, 1 and 4 mg/kg s.c.), 5-HT1A antagonist WAY 100635 maleate (1 mg/kg s.c.), 5-HT2A antagonist MDL-100907 tartarate (0.5 mg/kg s.c.), 5-HT2C antagonist SB-242084 (1 mg/kg s.c.) and clozapine 5 mg/kg i.p. For EEG experiments, rats were stereotactically implanted under isoflurane anesthesia with 12 active electrodes on the surface of frontal, parietal and temporal cortex. EEG was recorded (Brainscope EADS-221 amplifier, Unimedis, Czech Republic) in freely moving rats after one week recovery from surgery. EEG power spectra (local synchronization) and coherence (long projections) were subsequently analyzed in Neuroguide Deluxe v.2.6 comparing the drug effect to the baseline record. To avoid moving artifacts and effects of behavior on EEG, only EEG traces corresponding to behavioral inactivity were included in the analysis. The impact of substances on EEG signal was evaluated using a pair T-test. The significance level was estab-lished as p<0.05. Locomotor activity was assessed in open field test (EthoVision Color Pro v. 3.1.1, Noldus, Netherlands). For behavioral experiments a twoway ANOVA with Bonferroni correction was performed. Results: Psilocin induced dose-dependent decrease in locomotor activity and it generally decreased both EEG absolute spectral power (most prominently in theta band) and EEG coherences (in lower frequencies both inter- and intra-hemispherical, in higher frequencies only inter-hemispherical). Inhibition of locomotion induced by psilocin was abolished byWAY100635 and SB242084, but MDL100907 and clozapine did not have any effect. The changes in spectral power induced by psilocin were normalized by 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A antagonists. WAY100635 normalized partially EEG coherences and even induced discrete increases. MDL100907 normalized coherences predominantly in delta band. SB242084 did not affect psilocin-induced pattern of QEEG. Clozapine normalized partially both relative spectral power and EEG coherences. Conclusions: Our results showed that psilocin changed normal behavioral pattern of rats and decreased locomotor activity probably via 5-HT1A and 5-HT2C receptors. The psilocin-induced changes in QEEG, mediated at least partially by 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors, are in accordance with the concept of psychosis as a disconnection syndrome. Clozapine was less effective in normalization of these changes than 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A antagonists. Surprisingly, the 5-HT1A antagonist had the strongest effect in general, even though psilocin had higher affinity on 5-HT2C and 5-HT2A receptors. .
2013
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Leech, R., Erritzoe, D., Williams, T. M., Stone, J. M., Evans, J., et al. (2013). Functional connectivity measures after psilocybin inform a novel hypothesis of early psychosis. Schizophrenia Bulletin
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbs117
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“Psilocybin is a classic psychedelic and a candidate drug model of psychosis. This study measured the effects of psilocybin on resting-state network and thalamocortical functional connectivity (FC) using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Fifteen healthy volunteers received intravenous infusions of psilocybin and placebo in 2 task-free resting-state scans. Primary analyses focused on changes in FC between the default-mode- (DMN) and task-positive network (TPN). Spontaneous activity in the DMN is orthogonal to spontaneous activity in the TPN, and it is well known that these networks support very different functions (ie, the DMN supports introspection, whereas the TPN supports externally focused attention). Here, independent components and seed-based FC analyses revealed increased DMN-TPN FC and so decreased DMN-TPN orthogonality after psilocybin. Increased DMN-TPN FC has been found in psychosis and meditatory states, which share some phenomenological similarities with the psychedelic state. Increased DMN-TPN FC has also been observed in sedation, as has decreased thalamocortical FC, but here we found preserved thalamocortical FC after psilocybin. Thus, we propose that thalamocortical FC may be related to arousal, whereas DMN-TPN FC is related to the separateness of internally and externally focused states. We suggest that this orthogonality is compromised in early psychosis, explaining similarities between its phenomenology and that of the psychedelic state and supporting the utility of psilocybin as a model of early psychosis.
Vargas-Perez, H., & Doblin, R. (2013). Editorial (Hot Topic: The Potential of Psychedelics as a Preventative and Auxiliary Therapy for Drug Abuse). Current Drug Abuse Reviews
Plain numerical DOI: 10.2174/18744737112059990023
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“The Aim and Scope of this issue is focused on reviews of literature chiefly pertaining to “classic” psychedelic compounds (LSD, psilocybin, etc.) and ” non-classic ” psychedelics (Salvia divinorum and MDMA), with a strong focus on research in humans and/or animal models of addiction. From a recounting of the historical use of psychedelics, particularly in ethnobotany, psychiatry and psychology, to studies examining the effects of these drugs as an auxiliary therapy for addiction and other pathologies associated with chronic and/or traumatic stress, this issue presents a comprehensive analysis of psychedelics and their potential as therapeutic agents either as a part of psychotherapy or as a pharmacotherapy. I would like to thank Bentham Science Publishers for giving me the opportunity to raise awareness, under scientific scrutiny, of the therapeutic properties of these compounds after an extended pause of more than 30 years. I would also like to thank all the authors and anonymous referees that are the basis of this special issue, and K. Linnae Ponté and Mary Rose Bufalino for their unconditional help. The Population Intervention for Chronic Disease Prevention Program also deserves special acknowledgement for their support and focus on pursuing solutions that treat and prevent major chronic diseases.
Müller, K., Püschel, K., & Iwersen-Bergmann, S. (2013). Suizid unter Psilocin-Einfluss. Archiv Fur Kriminologie
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“Psilocybin/psilocin from so-called psychoactive mushrooms causes hallucinogenic effects. Especially for people with mental or psychiatric disorders ingestion of magic mushrooms may result in horror trips combined with the intention of self-destruction and suicidal thoughts. Automutilation after consumption of hallucinogenic mushrooms has already been described. Our case report demonstrates the suicide of a man by self-inflicted cut and stab injuries. A causal connection between suicidal behaviour and previous ingestion of psychoactive mushrooms is discussed
Catlow, B. J., Song, S., Paredes, D. A., Kirstein, C. L., & Sanchez-Ramos, J. (2013). Effects of psilocybin on hippocampal neurogenesis and extinction of trace fear conditioning. Experimental Brain Research
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s00221-013-3579-0
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“Drugs that modulate serotonin (5-HT) synaptic concentrations impact neurogenesis and hippocampal (HPC)-dependent learning. The primary objective is to determine the extent to which psilocybin (PSOP) modulates neurogenesis and thereby affects acquisition and extinction of HPC-dependent trace fear conditioning. PSOP, the 5-HT2A agonist 25I-NBMeO and the 5-HT2A/C antagonist ketanserin were administered via an acute intraperitoneal injection to mice. Trace fear conditioning was measured as the amount of time spent immobile in the presence of the conditioned stimulus (CS, auditory tone), trace (silent interval) and post-trace interval over 10 trials. Extinction was determined by the number of trials required to resume mobility during CS, trace and post-trace when the shock was not delivered. Neurogenesis was determined by unbiased counts of cells in the dentate gyrus of the HPC birth-dated with BrdU co-expressing a neuronal marker. Mice treated with a range of doses of PSOP acquired a robust conditioned fear response. Mice injected with low doses of PSOP extinguished cued fear conditioning significantly more rapidly than high-dose PSOP or saline-treated mice. Injection of PSOP, 25I-NBMeO or ketanserin resulted in significant dose-dependent decreases in number of newborn neurons in hippocampus. At the low doses of PSOP that enhanced extinction, neurogenesis was not decreased, but rather tended toward an increase. Extinction of “fear conditioning” may be mediated by actions of the drugs at sites other than hippocampus such as the amygdala, which is known to mediate the perception of fear. Another caveat is that PSOP is not purely selective for 5-HT2A receptors. PSOP facilitates extinction of the classically conditioned fear response, and this, and similar agents, should be explored as potential treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder and related conditions.
Rakovcová, H. (2013). Child accidents involving plants and mushrooms . Pediatrie Pro Praxi
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“Accidents involving ingestion of parts of plants in the home or in the outdoor setting are a typical issue in children, particularly toddlers. Consultations for plant poisoning have accounted for 10% to 11% of the total volume for many years. In children up to 15 years of age, plants as a reason for consultation account for 18%, in older patients they constitute 3%. House plants are particularly associated with leaf ingestion, garden plants with fruit or flower ingestion. Teenagers abuse Jimson weed seeds or, less frequently, small Psilocybin mushrooms for their hallucinogenic effects. Mushrooms are a separate, small, but much feared chapter of child poisoning. If a mushroom meal containing a poisonous mushroom is prepared and eaten, the youngest diner is at risk for the most severe poisoning symptoms. Since mushrooms are not a significant source of nutrients and are difficult to digest for children, it makes sense to leave them out of the diet of preschoolers.
Fadiman, J., & Addy, P. H. (2013). Cleansing the doors of misperception. Psyccritiques
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“Reviews the book, The Psychedelic Renaissance: Reassessing the Role of Psychedelic Drugs in 21st Century Psychiatry and Society by Ben Sessa (see record 2012-23435-000). The book presents the best overview to date of the state of the science of psychedelic research. While recreational use of drugs such as LSD and psilocybin continues, illegal and unabated, human subject research has resumed, shedding new light on aspects of neuropharmacology, mental illness, and healing. Reacquainting oneself with psychedelic drug use and research is important for any psychologist seeking to stay abreast of our current understanding of the brain, the mind, and the myriad interactions between them. The Psychedelic Renaissance includes access to accurate information that can maximize harm reduction and alert clinicians (and legislators) to the actual dangers and benefits of the numerous licit and illicit substances. Because restrictions on research, although lessened in recent years, are still formidable, The Psychedelic Renaissance provides a much-needed framework for the current understanding of psychedelic drugs, current and future research, and their relation to the human condition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved)
Müller, K., Püschel, K., & Iwersen-Bergmann, S. (2013). [Suicide under the influence of “magic mushrooms”]. Archiv Für Kriminologie
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“Psilocybin/psilocin from so-called psychoactive mushrooms causes hallucinogenic effects. Especially for people with mental or psychiatric disorders ingestion of magic mushrooms may result in horror trips combined with the intention of self-destruction and suicidal thoughts. Automutilation after consumption of hallucinogenic mushrooms has already been described. Our case report demonstrates the suicide of a man by self-inflicted cut and stab injuries. A causal connection between suicidal behaviour and previous ingestion of psychoactive mushrooms is discussed.
MacLean, K. A., & Griffiths, R. R. (2013). Study of Experiences Occasioned by the Hallucinogen. J Sci Study Relig
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-5906.2012.01685.x.Factor
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“A large body of historical evidence describes the use of hallucinogenic compounds, such as psilocybin mushrooms, for religious purposes. But few scientific studies have attempted to measure or characterize hallucinogen-occasioned spiritual experiences. The present study examined the factor structure of the Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ), a self-report measure that has been used to assess the effects of hallucinogens in laboratory studies. Participants (N=1602) completed the 43-item MEQ in reference to a mystical or profound experience they had had after ingesting psilocybin. Exploratory factor analysis of the MEQ retained 30 items and revealed a 4-factor structure covering the dimensions of classic mystical experience: unity, noetic quality, sacredness (F1); positive mood (F2); transcendence of time/space (F3); and ineffability (F4). MEQ factor scores showed good internal reliability and correlated with the Hood Mysticism Scale, indicating convergent validity. Participants who endorsed having had a mystical experience on psilocybin, compared to those who did not, had significantly higher factor scores, indicating construct validity. The 4-factor structure was confirmed in a second sample (N=440) and demonstrated superior fit compared to alternative models. The results provide initial evidence of the validity, reliability, and factor structure of a 30-item scale for measuring single, hallucinogen- occasioned mystical experiences, which may be a useful tool in the scientific study of mysticism.
Halberstadt, A. L., & Geyer, M. A. (2013). Serotonergic hallucinogens as translational models relevant to schizophrenia. In International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1017/S1461145713000722
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“One of the oldest models of schizophrenia is based on the effects of serotonergic hallucinogens such as mescaline, psilocybin, and (+)-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), which act through the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor. These compounds produce a “model psychosis” in normal individuals that resembles at least some of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Based on these similarities, and because evidence has emerged that the serotonergic system plays a role in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia in some patients, animal models relevant to schizophrenia have been developed based on hallucinogen effects. Here we review the behavioral effects of hallucinogens in four of those models, the receptor and neurochemical mechanisms for the effects, and their translational relevance. Despite the difficulty of modeling hallucinogen effects in nonverbal species, animal models of schizophrenia based on hallucinogens have yielded important insights into the linkage between 5-HT and schizophrenia and have helped to identify receptor targets and interactions that could be exploited in the development of new therapeutic agents.
LIU, W., HOU, B., HOU, Y., & ZHAO, Z. (2013). Synthesis of Formic Acid from CO2 Catalyzed by Formate Dehydrogenase Im-mobilized on Hollow Fiber Membrane. Chinese Journal Of Catalysis (Chinese Version)
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1088.2012.11024
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“The incidence of fungal poisoning varies considerably globally and is related to local habits, economic factors and lifestyle. Mushroom poisoning is mostly an accidental result of a mix-up between edible and toxic fungi. However, intentional ingestion of psychotropic (‘magic’) mushrooms has become a problem. Among thousands of mushroom species worldwide, fewer than a hundred are severely toxic. Most fungal toxins cause mild or moderate poisoning, often only gastroenteritis; the ingestion of a few species of extremely poisonous fungi defines the medical dimension of the problem. The most dreaded poisonings are those caused by cytotoxic fungi, for example amatoxins in death cap (Amanita phalloides) and destroying angel (Amanita virosa); both cause severe gastroenteritis and liver damage. Orellanine, occurring in certain Cortinarius spp., can induce severe and persistent kidney damage. Dramatic, but rarely lethal, effects are caused by fungi containing neurotoxins such as muscarine (Clitocybe and Inocybe spp.), psilocybin (Psilocybe and Panaeolus spp. – ‘magic’ mushrooms), isoxazoles (fly agaric, panther cap) and gyromitrin (false morels). Treatment is focused on general symptomatic and supportive care, although antidotes exist for fungi containing muscarine (atropine), gyromitrin (pyridoxine) and amatoxins (silibinin [silibinin is approved e.g. in Sweden and Germany (Legalon SIL D)], penicillin); the benefit of the latter has not yet been fully established.
Schmidt, A., Kometer, M., Bachmann, R., Seifritz, E., & Vollenweider, F. (2013). The NMDA antagonist ketamine and the 5-HT agonist psilocybin produce dissociable effects on structural encoding of emotional face expressions. Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s00213-012-2811-0
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“RATIONALE: Both glutamate and serotonin (5-HT) play a key role in the pathophysiology of emotional biases. Recent studies indicate that the glutamate N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist ketamine and the 5-HT receptor agonist psilocybin are implicated in emotion processing. However, as yet, no study has systematically compared their contribution to emotional biases.\n\nOBJECTIVES: This study used event-related potentials (ERPs) and signal detection theory to compare the effects of the NMDA (via S-ketamine) and 5-HT (via psilocybin) receptor system on non-conscious or conscious emotional face processing biases.\n\nMETHODS: S-ketamine or psilocybin was administrated to two groups of healthy subjects in a double-blind within-subject placebo-controlled design. We behaviorally assessed objective thresholds for non-conscious discrimination in all drug conditions. Electrophysiological responses to fearful, happy, and neutral faces were subsequently recorded with the face-specific P100 and N170 ERP.\n\nRESULTS: Both S-ketamine and psilocybin impaired the encoding of fearful faces as expressed by a reduced N170 over parieto-occipital brain regions. In contrast, while S-ketamine also impaired the encoding of happy facial expressions, psilocybin had no effect on the N170 in response to happy faces.\n\nCONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that the NMDA and 5-HT receptor systems differentially contribute to the structural encoding of emotional face expressions as expressed by the N170. These findings suggest that the assessment of early visual evoked responses might allow detecting pharmacologically induced changes in emotional processing biases and thus provides a framework to study the pathophysiology of dysfunctional emotional biases.
Stephens, R. S., & Banes, K. E. (2013). Cannabis and hallucinogens. In Addictions: A comprehensive guidebook
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“This chapter examines the patterns of use, pharmacology, and biobehavioral consequences of the use and abuse of cannabis and hallucinogens. The chapter discusses the following topics: cannabis (absorption and metabolism; neuropharmacology; preparations, dosage, and routes of administration; acute effects; tolerance, withdrawal, and dependence; adverse effects on health, safety, and adjustment) and hallucinogens (acute effects; neuropharmacology, dosage, preparations, absorption, and metabolism; LSD; psilocybin, dimethyltriptamine; mescaline; designer drugs; PCP; ketamine; amanita muscaria; anticholinergic hallucinogens; tolerance, withdrawal, and dependence; adverse effects on health, safety, and adjustment). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Pellegrini, M., Rotolo, M. C., Marchei, E., Pacifici, R., Saggio, F., & Pichini, S. (2013). Magic truffles or Philosopher’s stones: A legal way to sell psilocybin?. Drug Testing And Analysis
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/dta.1400
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“”Magic mushrooms” is the most common name given to hallucinogenic fungi containing the psychoactive alkaloids psilocybin and psilocin. In recent years, fungis’ sclerotia, commonly called “magic truffles” have become a form of supply of psychoactive Psilocybe alkaloids since Psilocybe sclerotia are not specifically included in the laws banning the sale, the purchase and the use of such substances and mushrooms containing them. A liquid chromatography -tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed for the rapid determination of psilocybin and psilocin in Psilocybe sclerotia. Following a simple step extraction with methanol, the alkaloids were separated on a reversed-phase column using a gradient of 0.1% formic acid – acetonitrile s a mobile phase at a flow rate of 0.2 mL/min. Separated analytes were detected by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry in the positive ion mode using multiple reaction monitoring. The developed method was linear over the calibration range for all two substances under investigation, with a r(2) > 0.99. The detection and quantification limits were 0.3 µg and 1 µg per 100 mg truffles, for both psilocin and psilocybin and the intra- and inter-day coefficients of variation were always better than 15%. Using this method, the presence of only psilocybin was demonstrated in examined Psilocybe sclerotia. The content of psilocybin was found to vary over a concentration range of 59.3 to 167.8 µg per 100 mg of fresh sclerotia.
Hanks, J. B., & González-Maeso, J. (2013). Animal models of serotonergic psychedelics. ACS Chemical Neuroscience
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1021/cn300138m
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“The serotonin 5-HT(2A) receptor is the major target of psychedelic drugs such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), mescaline, and psilocybin. Serotonergic psychedelics induce profound effects on cognition, emotion, and sensory processing that often seem uniquely human. This raises questions about the validity of animal models of psychedelic drug action. Nonetheless, recent findings suggest behavioral abnormalities elicited by psychedelics in rodents that predict such effects in humans. Here we review the behavioral effects induced by psychedelic drugs in rodent models, discuss the translational potential of these findings, and define areas where further research is needed to better understand the molecular mechanisms and neuronal circuits underlying their neuropsychological effects.
Kometer, M., Schmidt, A., Jancke, L., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2013). Activation of Serotonin 2A Receptors Underlies the Psilocybin-Induced Effects on Oscillations, N170 Visual-Evoked Potentials, and Visual Hallucinations. Journal Of Neuroscience
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3007-12.2013
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“Visual illusions and hallucinations are hallmarks of serotonergic hallucinogen-induced altered states of consciousness. Although the serotonergic hallucinogen psilocybin activates multiple serotonin (5-HT) receptors, recent evidence suggests that activation of 5-HT2A receptors may lead to the formation of visual hallucinations by increasing cortical excitability and altering visual-evoked cortical responses. To address this hypothesis, we assessed the effects of psilocybin (215 μg/kg vs placebo) on both α oscillations that regulate cortical excitability and early visual-evoked P1 and N170 potentials in healthy human subjects. To further disentangle the specific contributions of 5-HT2A receptors, subjects were additionally pretreated with the preferential 5-HT2A receptor antagonist ketanserin (50 mg vs placebo). We found that psilocybin strongly decreased prestimulus parieto-occipital α power values, thus precluding a subsequent stimulus-induced α power decrease. Furthermore, psilocybin strongly decreased N170 potentials associated with the appearance of visual perceptual alterations, including visual hallucinations. All of these effects were blocked by pretreatment with the 5-HT2A antagonist ketanserin, indicating that activation of 5-HT2A receptors by psilocybin profoundly modulates the neurophysiological and phenomenological indices of visual processing. Specifically, activation of 5-HT2A receptors may induce a processing mode in which stimulus-driven cortical excitation is overwhelmed by spontaneous neuronal excitation through the modulation of α oscillations. Furthermore, the observed reduction of N170 visual-evoked potentials may be a key mechanism underlying 5-HT2A receptor-mediated visual hallucinations. This change in N170 potentials may be important not only for psilocybin-induced states but also for understanding acute hallucinatory states seen in psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease.
Kosentka, P., Sprague, S. L., Ryberg, M., Gartz, J., May, A. L., Campagna, S. R., & Matheny, P. B. (2013). Evolution of the Toxins Muscarine and Psilocybin in a Family of Mushroom-Forming Fungi. Plos One
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0064646
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“Mushroom-forming fungi produce a wide array of toxic alkaloids. However, evolutionary analyses aimed at exploring the evolution of muscarine, a toxin that stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system, and psilocybin, a hallucinogen, have never been performed. The known taxonomic distribution of muscarine within the Inocybaceae is limited, based only on assays of species from temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. Here, we present a review of muscarine and psilocybin assays performed on species of Inocybaceae during the last fifty years. To supplement these results, we used liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to determine whether muscarine was present in 30 new samples of Inocybaceae, the majority of which have not been previously assayed or that originated from either the tropics or temperate regions of the southern hemisphere. Our main objective is to test the hypothesis that the presence of muscarine is a shared ancestral feature of the Inocybaceae. In addition, we also test whether species of Inocyabceae that produce psilocybin are monophyletic. Our findings suggest otherwise. Muscarine has evolved independently on several occasions, together with several losses. We also detect at least two independent transitions of muscarine-free lineages to psilocybin-producing states. Although not ancestral for the family as a whole, muscarine is a shared derived trait for an inclusive clade containing three of the seven major lineages of Inocybaceae (the Inocybe, Nothocybe, and Pseudosperma clades), the common ancestor of which may have evolved ca. 60 million years ago. Thus, muscarine represents a conserved trait followed by several recent losses. Transitions to psilocybin from muscarine-producing ancestors occurred more recently between 10-20 million years ago after muscarine loss in two separate lineages. Statistical analyses firmly reject a single origin of muscarine-producing taxa.
Salehmin, M. N. I., Annuar, M. S. M., & Chisti, Y. (2013). High cell density fed-batch fermentations for lipase production: Feeding strategies and oxygen transfer. Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s00449-013-0943-1
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“The modulating effects of serotonin on dopamine neurotransmission are not well understood, particularly in acute psychotic states. Positron emission tomography was used to examine the effect of psilocybin on the in vivo binding of [11C]raclopride to D2-dopamine receptors in the striatum in healthy volunteers after placebo and a psychotomimetic dose of psilocybin (n = 7). Psilocybin is a potent indoleamine hallucinogen and a mixed 5-HT(2A) and 5-HT(1A) receptor agonist. Psilocybin administration (0.25 mg/kg p.o.) produced changes in mood, disturbances in thinking, illusions, elementary and complex visual hallucinations and impaired ego-functioning. Psilocybin significantly decreased [11C]raclopride receptor binding potential (BP) bilaterally in the caudate nucleus (19%) and putamen (20%) consistent with an increase in endogenous dopamine. Changes in [11C]raclopride BP in the ventral striatum correlated with depersonalization associated with euphoria. Together with previous reports of 5-HT receptor involvement in striatal dopamine release, it is concluded that stimulation of both 5-HT(2A) and 5-HT(1A) receptors may be important for the modulation of striatal dopamine release in acute psychoses. The present results indirectly support the hypothesis of a serotonin-dopamine dysbalance in schizophrenia and suggest that psilocybin is a valuable tool in the analysis of serotonin-dopamine interactions in acute psychotic states. Copyright (C) 1999 American College of Neuropsychopharmacology.
Brogaard, B. (2013). Serotonergic Hyperactivity as a Potential Factor in Developmental, Acquired and Drug-Induced Synesthesia. Frontiers In Human Neuroscience
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00657
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“Though synesthesia research has seen a huge growth in recent decades, and tremendous progress has been made in terms of understanding the mechanism and cause of synesthesia, we are still left mostly in the dark when it comes to the mechanistic commonalities (if any) among developmental, acquired and drug-induced synesthesia. We know that many forms of synesthesia involve aberrant structural or functional brain connectivity. Proposed mechanisms include direct projection and disinhibited feedback mechanisms, in which information from two otherwise structurally or functionally separate brain regions mix. We also know that synesthesia sometimes runs in families. However, it is unclear what causes its onset. Studies of psychedelic drugs, such as psilocybin, LSD and mescaline, reveal that exposure to these drugs can induce synesthesia. One neurotransmitter suspected to be central to the perceptual changes is serotonin. Excessive serotonin in the brain may cause many of the characteristics of psychedelic intoxication. Excessive serotonin levels may also play a role in synesthesia acquired after brain injury. In brain injury sudden cell death floods local brain regions with serotonin and glutamate. This neurotransmitter flooding could perhaps result in unusual feature binding. Finally, developmental synesthesia that occurs in individuals with autism may be a result of alterations in the serotonergic system, leading to a blockage of regular gating mechanisms. I conclude on these grounds that one commonality among at least some cases of acquired, developmental and drug-induced synesthesia may be the presence of excessive levels of serotonin, which increases the excitability and connectedness of sensory brain regions.
Metzner, R. (2013). Entheogenic rituals, shamanism and green psychology. European Journal Of Ecopsychology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-59396-2.00014-6
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“Psychedelic or consciousness-expanding drugs have been studied by Western scientific researchers as adjuncts to psychotherapy while their plant-based equivalents are used in traditional ceremonial context for healing and spiritual practice. Plant extracts from tobacco, coca, coffee and cannabis, used as sacraments in indigenous cultures have become recreational drugs in contemporary society. Research with consciousness-expanding or entheogenic substances such as MDMA, LSD and psilocybin has focused on their value as adjuncts to psychotherapy. The worldwide underground culture has adopted the use of hallucinogenic plants and fungi, such as psilocybe mushrooms, ayahuasca, iboga and peyote, in small group hybrid therapeutic-shamanic ceremonies as well as large scale events such as raves. Core elements of such hybrid rituals are: the structure of a circle, a ritual space and altar of some kind, the presence of an experienced elder or guide, the use of eye-shades or semi-darkness and the cultivation of a respectful, spiritual attitude.
Ghorbani, Z., Masoumi, A. A., Hemmat, A., & Seifi, M. R. (2013). Prediction of specific energy consumption in milling process using some physical and mechanical properties of alfalfa grind. Australian Journal Of Crop Science
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.04.010
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“Background The amygdala is a key structure in serotonergic emotion-processing circuits. In healthy volunteers, acute administration of the serotonin 1A/2A/2C receptor agonist psilocybin reduces neural responses to negative stimuli and induces mood changes toward positive states. However, it is little-known whether psilocybin reduces amygdala reactivity to negative stimuli and whether any change in amygdala reactivity is related to mood change. Methods This study assessed the effects of acute administration of the hallucinogen psilocybin (.16 mg/kg) versus placebo on amygdala reactivity to negative stimuli in 25 healthy volunteers using blood oxygen level-dependent functional magnetic resonance imaging. Mood changes were assessed using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule and the state portion of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. A double-blind, randomized, cross-over design was used with volunteers counterbalanced to receive psilocybin and placebo in two separate sessions at least 14 days apart. Results Amygdala reactivity to negative and neutral stimuli was lower after psilocybin administration than after placebo administration. The psilocybin-induced attenuation of right amygdala reactivity in response to negative stimuli was related to the psilocybin-induced increase in positive mood state. Conclusions These results demonstrate that acute treatment with psilocybin decreased amygdala reactivity during emotion processing and that this was associated with an increase of positive mood in healthy volunteers. These findings may be relevant to the normalization of amygdala hyperactivity and negative mood states in patients with major depression.
Stebelska, K. (2013). Fungal hallucinogens psilocin, ibotenic acid, and muscimol: Analytical methods and biologic activities. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1097/FTD.0b013e31828741a5
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“Psychoactive drugs of fungal origin, psilocin, ibotenic acid, and muscimol among them have been proposed for recreational use and popularized since the 1960s, XX century. Despite their well-documented neurotoxicity, they reached reputation of being safe and nonaddictive. Scientific efforts to find any medical application for these hallucinogens in psychiatry, psychotherapy, and even for religious rituals support are highly controversial. Even if they show any healing potential, their usage in psychotherapy is in some cases inadequate and may additionally harm seriously suffering patients. Hallucinogens are thought to reduce cognitive functions. However, in case of indolealkylamines, such as psilocin, some recent findings suggest their ability to improve perception and mental skills, what would motivate the consumption of “magic mushrooms.” The present article offers an opportunity to find out what are the main symptoms of intoxication with mushrooms containing psilocybin/psilocin, muscimol, and ibotenic acid. The progress in analytical methods for detection of them in fungal material, food, and body fluids is reviewed. Findings on the mechanisms of their biologic activity are summarized. Additionally, therapeutic potential of these fungal psychoactive compounds and health risk associated with their abuse are discussed.
Olthuis, J. V., Darredeau, C., & Barrett, S. P. (2013). Substance use initiation: The role of simultaneous polysubstance use. Drug And Alcohol Review
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/j.1465-3362.2012.00470.x
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“INTRODUCTION AND AIMS: Simultaneous polysubstance use (SPU) is a common phenomenon, yet little is known about its role in substance use initiation.\n\nDESIGN AND METHODS: In the present study, 226 cannabis users completed structured interviews about their substance use history. For each substance ever used, participants provided details of their age of first use, their use in the preceding 30 days and whether they co-administered any other licit or illicit substances the first time they used the substance.\n\nRESULTS: For most illicit substances [powder cocaine, crack, amphetamine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; ecstasy), heroin, opium, gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), ketamine, psilocybin (magic mushrooms), mescaline, phencyclidine (PCP), peyote and inhalants], results showed that a clear majority of participants (≥75%) reported SPU during their first-ever use of the substance. While SPU was less common on occasions of first use of alcohol, tobacco and cannabis, a high proportion of SPU on occasions of first use of ‘harder’ drugs could be accounted for by the co-use of alcohol, tobacco and/or cannabis.\n\nDISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Such findings raise the possibility that specific alcohol, tobacco and/or cannabis use episodes might directly contribute to the initiation of new substance use. Understanding the role of SPU on occasions of first use might help better identify risk factors for substance use progression and improve intervention efforts.
Rex, E. (2013). Calming a Turbulent Mind. Scientific American Mind
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/scientificamericanmind0513-58
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“The article focuses on the potential therapy for people with life-threatening illness. It explores the capacity of psychedelic drugs such as the hallucinogen, psilocybin. It also mentions that psilocybin drugs could aid in progressing a patient’s quality of life as well as psychospiritual well-being.
Burdick, B. V., & Adinoff, B. (2013). A proposal to evaluate mechanistic efficacy of hallucinogens in addiction treatment. American Journal Of Drug And Alcohol Abuse
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3109/00952990.2013.811513
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“Current treatments for addiction are frequently ineffective. Hallucinogenic therapy has been indicated as helpful for a range of substance use disorders, yet this approach remains understudied and publicly unavailable. It is nonetheless a promising treatment, which has significant, long-term beneficial effects with single doses and a profile characterized by general safety, low toxicity, and non-addictiveness. However, pharmacological interventions, such as hallucinogens, should not be offered if the same effects (e.g. psychological insights/mystical experiences) and outcomes (e.g. decreased drug use) could be achieved absent pharmacological intervention. To date, there have been no clinical comparisons of drug-induced altered states with non-drug-induced states for addiction treatment. We propose and then outline a clinical trial to address this gap in knowledge. The proposed design would evaluate abstinence outcomes in a population of prescription opioid abusers after exposure to one of three conditions: a drug-induced altered state using psilocybin, a non-drug-induced altered state via hyperventilation (Holotropic Breathwork), and an active placebo with niacin. The outcomes of such a study would reveal important differences in therapeutic potential by discriminating hallucinogen-dependent effects from those psychological effects resulting from altered states.
Cozzi, N. V. (2013). Psychedelic Breakthroughs in Neuroscience : How Psychedelic Drugs Influenced the Growth and Development of Psychopharmacology. Maps Special Bulletin
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“IN THE MID-20TH CENTURY, the prevailing views in psychology and psychiatry were that mood, desires, feelings, memories, behaviors, and personalities were determined by environmental histories, childhood experiences, the interplay among reward, punish-ment, repression, and reinforcement, the unconscious mind, and psychosexual mecha-nisms, among others. Brain activity was believed to be essentially electrical in nature. Before the 1940s and early 1950s, the notion that consciousness was inuenced, if not determined, by the actions of chemicals produced in the brain, was completely for-eign. Important events that transformed the existing paradigms and birthed the elds of neurochemistry and neuropharmacology, leading directly to the development of psychopharmacology as a scientic discipline, are in fact centered around the discovery and investigation of the psychoactive eects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), psilocybin, and other psychedelic substances. One of the most important discoveries springing from psychedelic drug research was the elucidation of the role of serotonin in mental processes. Serotonin, whose chemical structure was determined in 1949 (Rapport, 1949), was known to be present in clotted blood since the late 1800s (Ludwig and Schmidt, 1868). Here, it has a hemo-static role: It helps prevent bleeding when tissues are damaged. Upon injury, serotonin is released from blood platelets, producing local vasoconstriction and stimulating fur-ther platelet aggregation, helping to form a clot and stanch bleeding. The discovery of serotonin in brain tissues in the early 1950s then hinted a potential role for serotonin in brain function and consciousness. The discovery of serotonin in the brain was made independently and simultaneously by a team in the United States (Betty M. Twarog and Irvine H. Page) and another team in Edinburgh, Scotland, led by Sir John H. Gad-dum (Twarog and Page, 1953; Amin et al., 1954). But it was Gaddum’s self-experiments with LSD that were especially important in shaping early theories of the involvement of serotonin in consciousness. Sir John H. Gaddum was a British pharmacologist who was involved in early se-rotonin research. On four separate occasions in 1953, Gaddum ingested LSD to learn of its eects in him (Green, 2008). Thanks, no doubt, in part to these self-experiments and in part to observations from his in vitro laboratory experiments with LSD and se-rotonin, Gaddum became the rst person to propose a relationship between LSD and serotonin (Gaddum, 1953a) and to then suggest that the eects of LSD on serotonin function were responsible for LSD’s psychedelic eects. His handwritten notes from a self-experiment with 86 micrograms of LSD on June 1, 1953 read as follows (Gaddum, 1953b): 9:48 My hand looks queer like a monstrous picture of a hand—that writhes about until I x it with a look. It has interesting contrasts in its colours. I see it like an overreal picture—feel rather strange to it—as if it was someone elses [sic]. Everything in the room is rather unstable. Methedrine has not abolished the eect on sensations.
Bogenschutz, M. (2013). Studying the Effects of Classic Hallucinogens in the Treatment of Alcoholism: Rationale, Methodology, and Current Research with Psilocybin. Current Drug Abuse Reviews
Plain numerical DOI: 10.2174/15733998113099990002
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“Recent developments in the study of classic hallucinogens, combined with a re-appraisal of the older literature, have led to a renewal of interest in possible therapeutic applications for these drugs, notably their application in the treatment of addictions. This article will first provide a brief review of the research literature providing direct and indirect support for the possible therapeutic effects of classic hallucinogens such as psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in the treatment of addictions. Having provided a rationale for clinical investigation in this area, we discuss design issues in clinical trials using classic hallucinogens, some of which are unique to this class of drug. We then discuss the current status of this field of research and design considerations in future randomized trials.
Krebs, T. S., & Johansen, P. Ø. (2013). Psychedelics and mental health: a population study. Plos One
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063972
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“BACKGROUND: The classical serotonergic psychedelics LSD, psilocybin, mescaline are not known to cause brain damage and are regarded as non-addictive. Clinical studies do not suggest that psychedelics cause long-term mental health problems. Psychedelics have been used in the Americas for thousands of years. Over 30 million people currently living in the US have used LSD, psilocybin, or mescaline. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between the lifetime use of psychedelics and current mental health in the adult population. METHOD: Data drawn from years 2001 to 2004 of the National Survey on Drug Use and Health consisted of 130,152 respondents, randomly selected to be representative of the adult population in the United States. Standardized screening measures for past year mental health included serious psychological distress (K6 scale), mental health treatment (inpatient, outpatient, medication, needed but did not receive), symptoms of eight psychiatric disorders (panic disorder, major depressive episode, mania, social phobia, general anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, posttraumatic stress disorder, and non-affective psychosis), and seven specific symptoms of non-affective psychosis. We calculated weighted odds ratios by multivariate logistic regression controlling for a range of sociodemographic variables, use of illicit drugs, risk taking behavior, and exposure to traumatic events. RESULTS: 21,967 respondents (13.4% weighted) reported lifetime psychedelic use. There were no significant associations between lifetime use of any psychedelics, lifetime use of specific psychedelics (LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, peyote), or past year use of LSD and increased rate of any of the mental health outcomes. Rather, in several cases psychedelic use was associated with lower rate of mental health problems. CONCLUSION: We did not find use of psychedelics to be an independent risk factor for mental health problems.
Moreno, J. L., Holloway, T., Rayannavar, V., Sealfon, S. C., & González-Maeso, J. (2013). Chronic treatment with LY341495 decreases 5-HT2A receptor binding and hallucinogenic effects of LSD in mice. Neuroscience Letters
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2012.12.053
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“Hallucinogenic drugs, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), mescaline and psilocybin, alter perception and cognitive processes. All hallucinogenic drugs have in common a high affinity for the serotonin 5-HT2Areceptor. Metabotropic glutamate 2/3 (mGlu2/3) receptor ligands show efficacy in modulating the cellular and behavioral responses induced by hallucinogenic drugs. Here, we explored the effect of chronic treatment with the mGlu2/3 receptor antagonist 2S-2-amino-2-(1S,2S-2-carboxycyclopropan-1-yl)-3-(xanth-9-yl)-propionic acid (LY341495) on the hallucinogenic-like effects induced by LSD (0.24mg/kg). Mice were chronically (21 days) treated with LY341495 (1.5mg/kg), or vehicle, and experiments were carried out one day after the last injection. Chronic treatment with LY341495 down-regulated [3H]ketanserin binding in somatosensory cortex of wild-type, but not mGlu2 knockout (KO), mice. Head-twitch behavior, and expression of c-fos, egr-1 and egr-2, which are responses induced by hallucinogenic 5-HT2Aagonists, were found to be significantly decreased by chronic treatment with LY341495. These findings suggest that repeated blockade of the mGlu2 receptor by LY341495 results in reduced 5-HT2Areceptor-dependent hallucinogenic effects of LSD. © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd.
Carhart-Harris, R. L., & Nutt, D. J. (2013). Experienced Drug Users Assess the Relative Harms and Benefits of Drugs: A Web-Based Survey. Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2013.825034
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“A web-based survey was used to consult the opinions of experienced drug users on matters related to drug harms. We identified a rare sample of 93 drug users with personal experience with 11 different illicit drugs that are widely used in the UK. Asked to assess the relative harms of these drugs, they ranked alcohol and tobacco as the most harmful, and three “Class A” drugs (MDMA, LSD, and psilocybin) and one class B (cannabis) were ranked as the four least harmful drugs. When asked to assess the relative potential for benefit of the 11 drugs, MDMA, LSD, psilocybin, and cannabis were ranked in the top four; and when asked why these drugs are beneficial, rather than simply report hedonic properties, they referred to potential therapeutic applications (e.g., as tools to assist psychotherapy). These results provide a useful insight into the opinions of experienced drug users on a subject about which they have a rare and intimate knowledge.
Icaza, E. E., & Mashour, G. A. (2013). Altered states: psychedelics and anesthetics. Anesthesiology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1097/01.anes.0000435635.42332.ee
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“The psychedelic experience has been reported since antiquity, but there is relatively little known about the underlying neural mechanisms. A recent neuroimaging study on psilocybin revealed a pattern of decreased cerebral blood flow and functional disconnections that is surprisingly similar to that caused by various anesthetics. In this article, the authors review historical examples of psychedelic experiences induced by general anesthetics and then contrast the mechanisms by which these two drug classes generate altered states of consciousness.
Jastrzebski, M., & Bala, A. (2013). [The impact of psilocybin on visual perception and spatial orientation–neuropsychological approach]. Psychiatria Polska
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“Psilocybin is a substance of natural origin, occurring in hallucinogenic mushrooms (most common in the Psilocybe family). After its synthesis in 1958 research began on its psychoactive properties, particularly strong effects on visual perception and spatial orientation. Due to the very broad spectrum of psilocybin effects research began on the different ranges of its actions–including the effect on physiological processes (such as eye saccada movements). Neuro-imaging and neurophysiological research (positron emission tomography-PET and electroencephalography-EEG), indicate a change in the rate of metabolism of the brain and desync cerebral hemispheres. Experimental studies show the changes in visual perception and distortion from psilocybin in the handwriting style of patients examined. There are widely described subjective experiences reported by the subjects. There are also efforts to apply testing via questionnaire on people under the influence of psilocybin, in the context of the similarity of psilocybin-induced state to the initial stages of schizophrenia, as well as research aimed at creating an ‘artificial’ model of the disease.
Grob, C. S., Bossis, A. P., & Griffiths, R. R. (2013). Use of the classic hallucinogen psilocybin for treatment of existential distress associated with cancer. In Psychological Aspects of Cancer: A Guide to Emotional and Psychological Consequences of Cancer, Their Causes and Their Management
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-4866-2_17
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“This chapter will review the potential of a treatment approach that uses psilocybin, a novel psychoactive drug, to ameliorate the psychospiritual distress and demoralization that often accompanies a life-threatening cancer diagnosis. Early research with classic hallucinogens in the 1950s had a major impact on the evolving fi eld of psychiatry, contributing to early discoveries of basic neurotransmitter systems and to signifi cant developments in clinical psychopharmacology. While published reports of therapeutic breakthroughs with difficult to treat and refractory patient populations were initially met with mainstream professional enthusiasm, by the late 1960s and early 1970s the growing association of hallucinogens with widespread indiscriminate use led to the temporary abandonment of this promising psychiatric treatment model. After a hiatus lasting several decades, however, regulatory and scientific support has grown for the resumption of clinical research investigations exploring the safety and efficacy of a treatment model utilizing the classic hallucinogen, psilocybin, in a subject population that had previously demonstrated positive therapeutic response, patients with existential anxiety due to a life-threatening cancer diagnosis.
2012
Tuddenham, E. G. (2012). “Magic” mushrooms don’t cause renal failure. BMJ (Online)
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1136/bmj.e6893
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“Noabstrat: letter “We have had recent experience with renal toxicity caused by deliberate ingestion of psilocybin mushrooms, which are eaten for their hallucinogenic effects. Acute renal failure secondary to the recreational use of mushrooms is rarely reported.”1 Each of these statements is problematic. The authors give no details of the identity of the species of fungus consumed in their case. That acute renal failure secondary to recreational use of fungi (by implications hallucinogenic ones) causing renal failure is rarely reported can be easily explained. There is no evidence that they cause it. A brief glance at the only paper they reference shows that the patient did not state what kind of mushroom had been ingested, and the authors conclude that it was not a “magic” mushroom that was the culprit but a cortinarius. The patient had no psychedelic effect, just abdominal pain. The real risk of eating magic mushrooms is not that they are toxic but that the identity may be inaccurate and a toxic species eaten by mistake. The other risk is strictly legal, which is that our bizarre drug legislation has classed them with crack cocaine. There are no reports of serious harm resulting from ingestion of Psilocybe spp other than can be attributed to the psychoactive effects of the psilocybin they contain.
Luke, D., Friday, R., & Terhune, D. (2012). Psychedelic synaesthesia: Evidence for a serotonergic role in synaesthesia. Seeing And Perceiving
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1163/187847612X646956
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“The neurobiology of synaesthesia is receiving growing attention in the search for insights into consciousness, such as the binding problem. One way of decoding the neurocognitive mechanisms underlying this phenomenon is to investigate the induction of synaesthesia via neurochemical agents, as commonly occurs with psychedelic substances. How synaesthesia is affected by drugs can also help inform us of the neural mechanisms underlying this condition. To address these questions we surveyed a sample of recreational drug users regarding the prevalence, type and frequency of synaesthesia under the influence of psychedelics and other psychoactive substances. The results indicate that synaesthesia is frequently experienced following the consumption of serotonergic agonists such as LSD and psilocybin and that these same drugs appear to augment synaesthesia in congenital synaesthetes. These results implicate the serotonergic system in the experience of synaesthesia.
HongYan, H., Zhe, H., & YuBai, L. (2012). Flavone glycoside antagonizes psilocybin-induced toxicity by reducing oxidative stress in rats model. Journal Of China Medical University
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“Objective: To explore the effects of flavone glycoside on psilocybin-induced oxidative damage in rats. Methods: Five group Sprague-Dawley rats (10 for each group) were received vehicle (Con), low dose of psilocybin (i.p., 0.5 micro g/kg body weight) (LD), high dose of psilocybin (i.p., 1.5 micro g/kg body weight) (HD), low dose of psilocybin (i.p.) plus flavone glycoside (i.p. 100 mg/kg body weight) (LDR), and high dose of psilocybin (i.p.) plus flavone glycoside (i.p.) (HDR), respectively. Ratio of organ weight to body weight of each group was measured. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) in serum of each group was evaluated with automated biochemistry analyzer. Oxidative stress-associated biochemical profile such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA) was assessed using kits. Liver histology of each group was observed using immunohistochemistry method. Results: Compared with control group, AST and ALT in HD group were significantly increased, suggested that high dose of psilocybin induced toxic damage. After high dose treatment with psilocybins, MDA and SOD of liver homogenesis were elevated but this enhancement was reduced in HDR group, indicated that flavone glycoside alleviated psilocybin-induced oxidative stress. Interestingly, this significant increase of SOD was not observed in the kidney and heart lysates, implying that injured sites may be organ-dependent. Furthermore, histological analysis showed that high dose psilocybin induced liver damage which was reversed by flavone glycoside. Conclusion: Oxidative damage induced by psilocybin could be attenuated by flavone glycoside. Our present study provided a novel mechanism of psilocybin-induced toxicity evidence and its antidote strategy.
Johnson, M. W., Andrew Sewell, R., & Griffiths, R. R. (2012). Psilocybin dose-dependently causes delayed, transient headaches in healthy volunteers. Drug And Alcohol Dependence
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.10.029
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“Background: Psilocybin is a well-characterized classic hallucinogen (psychedelic) with a long history of religious use by indigenous cultures, and nonmedical use in modern societies. Although psilocybin is structurally related to migraine medications, and case studies suggest that psilocybin may be efficacious in treatment of cluster headache, little is known about the relationship between psilocybin and headache. Methods: This double-blind study examined a broad range of psilocybin doses (0, 5, 10, 20, and 30. mg/70. kg) on headache in 18 healthy participants. Results: Psilocybin frequently caused headache, the incidence, duration, and severity of which increased in a dose-dependent manner. All headaches had delayed onset, were transient, and lasted no more than a day after psilocybin administration. Conclusions: Possible mechanisms for these observations are discussed, and include induction of delayed headache through nitric oxide release. These data suggest that headache is an adverse event to be expected with the nonmedical use of psilocybin-containing mushrooms as well as the administration of psilocybin in human research. Headaches were neither severe nor disabling, and should not present a barrier to future psilocybin research. © 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd.
Barceloux, D. G. (2012). Psilocybin and Hallucinogenic Mushrooms. Medical Toxicology Of Drug Abuse
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/9781118105955.ch64
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“This chapter contains sections titled: * History * Botantical Description * Identifying Characteristics * Exposure * Dose Effect * Toxicokinetics * Histopathology and Pathophysiology * Clinical Response * Diagnostic Testing * Treatment * References
Tennison, M. N. (2012). Moral transhumanism: The next step. Journal Of Medicine And Philosophy (United Kingdom)
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1093/jmp/jhs024
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“Although transhumanism offers hope for the transcendence of human biological limitations, it generates many intrinsic and consequential ethical concerns. The latter include issues such as the exacerbation of social inequalities and the exponentially increasing technological capacity to cause harm. To mitigate these risks, many thinkers have initiated investigations into the possibility of moral enhancement that could limit the power disparities facilitated by biotechnological enhancement. The arguments often focus on whether moral enhancement is morally permissible, or even obligatory, and remain largely in the realm of the hypothetical. This paper proposes that psilocybin may represent a viable, practical option for moral enhancement and that its further research in the context of moral psychology could comprise the next step in the development of moral transhumanism.
Hatten, B. W., McKeown, N. J., Hendrickson, R. G., & Horowitz, B. Z. (2012). The epidemiology of mushroom ingestion calls to US poison control centers: 2001-2011. Clinical Toxicology
Plain numerical DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/15563650.2012.700015
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“Background: There have been neither national multiyear analyses of mushroom ingestions handled by poison control centers (PCCs), nor spatial analyses of these ingestions. Objectives: To describe the epidemiology of mushroom ingestion calls to PCCs. To perform a GIS/Spatial Epidemiology analysis of mushroom ingestion calls. Methods: A retrospective analysis of PCC call data. NPDS database search was performed, from 2001-2011 with matching mushroom codes. Demographics, toxin group, specifi c species ingested, clinical outcome, treatment location, and caller zip code were identified. Descriptive analysis was performed with Excel and Stata; Spatial analysis was performed with SaTScan and ArcGIS. Results: 83140 mushroom ingestions were reported to US PCCs from 2001-2011. 64534 (77.6%) were pediatric ingestions and 48437 (58.3%) were under 6 years old. 48423 (58.2%) of patients were male. 65255 (78.5%) of ingestions were unintentional. Identification was made in only 4232 (5.1%) exposures and included 185 distinct species. The 5 most common species (number of Identifications): 1. Morchella angusticeps (507) 2. Chlorophyllum molybdites (374) 3. Amanita muscaria (319) 4. Lycoperdon candidum (228) 5. Calvatia lepidophora (175). The toxin group was identified in 12147 (14.6%) of ingestions. The toxin groups (number of Identifications) were: 1. Cyclopeptides (512) 1a. Orellanine (41) 2. Muscimol (Ibotenic Acid) (480) 3. Monomethylhydrazine (MMH) (448) 4. Muscarine and Histamine (284) 5. Coprine (141) 6. Hallucinogenics (Psilocybin and Psilocin) (8375). 7. Gastrointestinal Irritants (1866). Of the symptomatic cases, effects were minor in 10953 (56.5%), moderate in 7804 (40.3%), major in 568 (2.9%), and death in 45 (0.2%). Of the 614 cases of major effect or death, a species was identified in 64 (10.4%). The 5 most common species (number of cases) identified as responsible for major effects or death were: Amanita phalloides (27), Amanita muscaria (22), Amanita pantherina (9), Amanita Smithiana/Proxima/Pseudoporphyria (5), & Amanita bisporigera (3). Of the 97 cases where Amanita phalloides was identified, 23 (23.7%) resulted in major effects and 4 (4.1%) in death. In the 59 cases of Amanita phalloides ingestions where clinical effects were confirmed, 23 (39.0%) resulted in major effects and 4 (6.8%) in death. Maps demonstrating ingestion broken down by species of interest, toxin group, and clinical effects will be presented. Conclusions: Calls to US PCCs regarding mushroom ingestions occur commonly. However, the mushroom species or toxin group is infrequently identified. Major effects or death are rare, but symptomatic Amanita phalloides ingestions appear to be at the highest risk.
J., C. (2012). A mushroom-fuelled trip in a brain scanner. Psychologist
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“The article reports on a research study led by Robin Carhart-Harris at Imperial College in London, England which reveals changes on the cerebral blood flow of participants subjected to functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) with psilocybin.
Doyle, R. (2012). Healing with Plant Intelligence: A Report from Ayahuasca. Anthropology Of Consciousness
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-3537.2012.01055.x
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“Numerous and diverse reports indicate the efficacy of shamanic plant adjuncts (e.g., iboga, ayahuasca, psilocybin) for the care and treatment of addiction, post-traumatic stress disorder, cancer, cluster headaches, and depression. This article reports on a first-person healing of lifelong asthma and atopic dermatitis in the shamanic context of the contemporary Peruvian Amazon and the sometimes digital ontology of online communities. The article suggests that emerging language, concepts, and data drawn from the sciences of plant signaling and behavior regarding “plant intelligence” provide a useful heuristic framework for comprehending and actualizing the healing potentials of visionary plant “entheogens” (Wasson 1971) as represented both through firstperson experience and online reports. Together with the paradigms and practices of plant signaling, biosemiotics provides a robust and coherent map for contextualizing the often reported experience of plant communication with ayahuasca and other entheogenic plants. The archetype of the “plant teachers” (called Doctores in the upper Amazon) is explored as a means for organizing and interacting with this data within an epistemology of the “hallucination/ perception continuum (Fischer 1975). “Ecodelic” is offered as a new linguistic interface alongside “entheogen” (Wasson 1971).
Raichle, M. E., Erritzoe, D., Williams, T., Stone, J. M., Reed, L. J., Colasanti, A., et al. (2012). Inaugural Article: A default mode of brain function. Pnas
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1073/pnas.98.2.676
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“Psychedelic drugs have a long history of use in healing ceremonies, but despite renewed interest in their therapeutic potential, we continue to know very little about how they work in the brain. Here we used psilocybin, a classic psychedelic found in magic mushrooms, and a task-free functional MRI (fMRI) protocol designed to capture the transition from normal waking consciousness to the psychedelic state. Arterial spin labeling perfusion and blood-oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) fMRI were used to map cerebral blood flow and changes in venous oxygenation before and after intravenous infusions of placebo and psilocybin. Fifteen healthy volunteers were scanned with arterial spin labeling and a separate 15 with BOLD. As predicted, profound changes in consciousness were observed after psilocybin, but surprisingly, only decreases in cerebral blood flow and BOLD signal were seen, and these were maximal in hub regions, such as the thalamus and anterior and posterior cingulate cortex (ACC and PCC). Decreased activity in the ACC/medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) was a consistent finding and the magnitude of this decrease predicted the intensity of the subjective effects. Based on these results, a seed-based pharmaco-physiological interaction/functional connectivity analysis was performed using a medial prefrontal seed. Psilocybin caused a significant decrease in the positive coupling between the mPFC and PCC. These results strongly imply that the subjective effects of psychedelic drugs are caused by decreased activity and connectivity in the brain’s key connector hubs, enabling a state of unconstrained cognition.
Quednow, B. B., Kometer, M., Geyer, M. A., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2012). Psilocybin-Induced Deficits in Automatic and Controlled Inhibition are Attenuated by Ketanserin in Healthy Human Volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/npp.2011.228
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“The serotonin-2A receptor (5-HT(2A)R) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia and related inhibitory gating and behavioral inhibition deficits of schizophrenia patients. The hallucinogen psilocybin disrupts automatic forms of sensorimotor gating and response inhibition in humans, but it is unclear so far whether the 5-HT(2A)R or 5-HT(1A)R agonist properties of its bioactive metabolite psilocin account for these effects. Thus, we investigated whether psilocybin-induced deficits in automatic and controlled inhibition in healthy humans could be attenuated by the 5-HT(2A/2C)R antagonist ketanserin. A total of 16 healthy participants received placebo, ketanserin (40 mg p.o.), psilocybin (260 μg/kg p.o.), or psilocybin plus ketanserin in a double-blind, randomized, and counterbalanced order. Sensorimotor gating was measured by prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the acoustic startle response. The effects on psychopathological core dimensions and behavioral inhibition were assessed by the altered states of consciousness questionnaire (5D-ASC), and the Color-Word Stroop Test. Psilocybin decreased PPI at short lead intervals (30 ms), increased all 5D-ASC scores, and selectively increased errors in the interference condition of the Stroop Test. Stroop interference and Stroop effect of the response latencies were increased under psilocybin as well. Psilocybin-induced alterations were attenuated by ketanserin pretreatment, whereas ketanserin alone had no significant effects. These findings suggest that the disrupting effects of psilocybin on automatic and controlled inhibition processes are attributable to 5-HT(2A)R stimulation. Sensorimotor gating and attentional control deficits of schizophrenia patients might be due to changes within the 5-HT(2A)R system.
Cooper, G., & Thompson, J. P. (2012). Mushroom poisoning in the UK: review of enquiries received by the National Poisons Information Service . Clinical Toxicology
Plain numerical DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/15563650.2012.669957
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“Abstract only Objective: To assess the epidemiology of mushroom poisoning in the United Kingdom between January 2008 and 14th November 2011. Methods: Enquiries to the National Poisons Information service were reviewed retrospectively and analysed to evaluate patterns of exposure. Results: A total of 946 enquiries were analysed; this accounted for 0.4%, 0.37%, 0.63% and 0.52% of all enquiries in 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011 respectively. Fifty-four percent (n = 515) of the total involved children under 15 years and 45% (424) involved children < 5 years. In this group 81% were reported to have ingested an unidentified mushroom; 77% were asymptomatic, 12% reported gastrointestinal symptoms only and 4 cases developed moderate features. Eighty-four percent of all enquiries occurred between June and November (peak in September) indicating a possible influence of climatic conditions on growth. Enquiries that reported symptoms either at time of enquiry or at follow-up were reviewed to determine the time of onset of symptoms. Of these (n = 332) 126 were excluded due to insufficient detail on the record or unconfirmed exposure. In the remaining 206 enquiries, 72% reported symptoms within the first 6 hours with 28% reporting later onset of symptoms. In the under 5 age group who reported symptoms only 34 enquiries contained sufficient data to determine time of onset and in that group only 2 developed features later than 6 hours post ingestion. None of those followed up developed severe features. Forty (5%) cases had a poisoning severity score of moderate or severe. In this group 21 were regarding an unknown species, 9 concerned psilocybin or magic mushrooms and the other 10 were regarding known species of mushroom including Amanita and Cortinarius species. Conclusion: Seasonal poisoning is not a new phenomenon; the suggestion that availability is a major determinant in the risk of poisoning particularly in children is supported by these data. Foragers and pickers who consume larger quantities of mushrooms tend to develop more severe symptoms. Education of the public concerning consumption of mushrooms and education of health personnel regarding early treatment and transfer to hospitals with appropriate facilities are important for improving outcome.
Kometer, M., Schmidt, A., Bachmann, R., Studerus, E., Seifritz, E., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2012). Psilocybin biases facial recognition, goal-directed behavior, and mood state toward positive relative to negative emotions through different serotonergic subreceptors. Biological Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.04.005
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“Background: Serotonin (5-HT) 1A and 2A receptors have been associated with dysfunctional emotional processing biases in mood disorders. These receptors further predominantly mediate the subjective and behavioral effects of psilocybin and might be important for its recently suggested antidepressive effects. However, the effect of psilocybin on emotional processing biases and the specific contribution of 5-HT2A receptors across different emotional domains is unknown. Methods: In a randomized, double-blind study, 17 healthy human subjects received on 4 separate days placebo, psilocybin (215 μg/kg), the preferential 5-HT2A antagonist ketanserin (50 mg), or psilocybin plus ketanserin. Mood states were assessed by self-report ratings, and behavioral and event-related potential measurements were used to quantify facial emotional recognition and goal-directed behavior toward emotional cues. Results: Psilocybin enhanced positive mood and attenuated recognition of negative facial expression. Furthermore, psilocybin increased goal-directed behavior toward positive compared with negative cues, facilitated positive but inhibited negative sequential emotional effects, and valence-dependently attenuated the P300 component. Ketanserin alone had no effects but blocked the psilocybin-induced mood enhancement and decreased recognition of negative facial expression. Conclusions: This study shows that psilocybin shifts the emotional bias across various psychological domains and that activation of 5-HT2A receptors is central in mood regulation and emotional face recognition in healthy subjects. These findings may not only have implications for the pathophysiology of dysfunctional emotional biases but may also provide a framework to delineate the mechanisms underlying psylocybin’s putative antidepressant effects. © 2012 Society of Biological Psychiatry.
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Leech, R., Williams, T. M., Erritzoe, D., Abbasi, N., Bargiotas, T., et al. (2012). Implications for psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy: Functional magnetic resonance imaging study with psilocybin. British Journal Of Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1192/bjp.bp.111.103309
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“BACKGROUND: Psilocybin is a classic psychedelic drug that has a history of use in psychotherapy. One of the rationales for its use was that it aids emotional insight by lowering psychological defences. AIMS: To test the hypothesis that psilocybin facilitates access to personal memories and emotions by comparing subjective and neural responses to positive autobiographical memories under psilocybin and placebo. METHOD: Ten healthy participants received two functional magnetic resonance imaging scans (2 mg intravenous psilocybin v. intravenous saline), separated by approximately 7 days, during which they viewed two different sets of 15 positive autobiographical memory cues. Participants viewed each cue for 6 s and then closed their eyes for 16 s and imagined re-experiencing the event. Activations during this recollection period were compared with an equivalent period of eyes-closed rest. We split the recollection period into an early phase (first 8 s) and a late phase (last 8 s) for analysis. RESULTS: Robust activations to the memories were seen in limbic and striatal regions in the early phase and the medial prefrontal cortex in the late phase in both conditions (P<0.001, whole brain cluster correction), but there were additional visual and other sensory cortical activations in the late phase under psilocybin that were absent under placebo. Ratings of memory vividness and visual imagery were significantly higher after psilocybin (P<0.05) and there was a significant positive correlation between vividness and subjective well-being at follow-up (P<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Evidence that psilocybin enhances autobiographical recollection implies that it may be useful in psychotherapy either as a tool to facilitate the recall of salient memories or to reverse negative cognitive biases.
Aleman, J., Crul, M., van der Voort, P. H. J., & Franssen, E. J. F. (2012). Anticholinergic toxicity after the ingestion of serotonergic ‘magic mushrooms’. Netherlands Journal Of Critical Care
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“Case report. We report a case of psilocybin toxicity, causing an anticholinergic syndrome, after the consumption of Psilocybe Mexicana, a serotonergic mushroom. The patient was unconscious on admission to hospital, with mydriasis, hyperthermia, tachycardia, hypotension and respiratory failure after using cannabis all day and a portion of ‘magic mushrooms’ in addition to his regular medication which included GABAergic and anticholinergic drugs. The presence of psilocin (in serum) and cannabis (in urine) was confirmed. The patient was admitted to the ICU, treated with supportive care and was discharged after two days. Conclusion. Anticholinergic toxicity can occur when anticholinergic and GABAergic drugs are combined with cannabis and Psilocybe Mexicana and may result in life-threatening organ failure. (copyright) 2012, Nederlandse Vereniging voor Intensive Care. All Rights Reserved.
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Erritzoe, D., Williams, T., Stone, J. M., Reed, L. J., Colasanti, A., et al. (2012). Neural correlates of the psychedelic state as determined by fMRI studies with psilocybin. Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Sciences
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1119598109
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“Psychedelic drugs have a long history of use in healing ceremonies, but despite renewed interest in their therapeutic potential, we continue to know very little about how they work in the brain. Here we used psilocybin, a classic psychedelic found in magic mushrooms, and a task-free functional MRI (fMRI) protocol designed to capture the transition from normal waking consciousness to the psychedelic state. Arterial spin labeling perfusion and blood-oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) fMRI were used to map cerebral blood flow and changes in venous oxygenation before and after intravenous infusions of placebo and psilocybin. Fifteen healthy volunteers were scanned with arterial spin labeling and a separate 15 with BOLD. As predicted, profound changes in consciousness were observed after psilocybin, but surprisingly, only decreases in cerebral blood flow and BOLD signal were seen, and these were maximal in hub regions, such as the thalamus and anterior and posterior cingulate cortex (ACC and PCC). Decreased activity in the ACC/medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) was a consistent finding and the magnitude of this decrease predicted the intensity of the subjective effects. Based on these results, a seed-based pharmaco-physiological interaction/functional connectivity analysis was performed using a medial prefrontal seed. Psilocybin caused a significant decrease in the positive coupling between the mPFC and PCC. These results strongly imply that the subjective effects of psychedelic drugs are caused by decreased activity and connectivity in the brain’s key connector hubs, enabling a state of unconstrained cognition.
Roiser, J. P., & Rees, G. (2012). Neuroimaging: A scanner, colourfully. Current Biology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2012.02.033
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“Two recent studies report changes in human brain responses after exposure to psilocybin, the active ingredient of hallucinogenic mushrooms. Psilocybin increased sensory cortex responses during emotional recollection, but decreased resting-state blood flow in prefrontal cortex, with potential implications for treating depression. © 2012 Elsevier Ltd.
Studerus, E., Gamma, A., Kometer, M., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2012). Prediction of psilocybin response in healthy volunteers. Plos One
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0030800
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“Responses to hallucinogenic drugs, such as psilocybin, are believed to be critically dependent on the user’s personality, current mood state, drug pre-experiences, expectancies, and social and environmental variables. However, little is known about the order of importance of these variables and their effect sizes in comparison to drug dose. Hence, this study investigated the effects of 24 predictor variables, including age, sex, education, personality traits, drug pre-experience, mental state before drug intake, experimental setting, and drug dose on the acute response to psilocybin. The analysis was based on the pooled data of 23 controlled experimental studies involving 409 psilocybin administrations to 261 healthy volunteers. Multiple linear mixed effects models were fitted for each of 15 response variables. Although drug dose was clearly the most important predictor for all measured response variables, several non-pharmacological variables significantly contributed to the effects of psilocybin. Specifically, having a high score in the personality trait of Absorption, being in an emotionally excitable and active state immediately before drug intake, and having experienced few psychological problems in past weeks were most strongly associated with pleasant and mystical-type experiences, whereas high Emotional Excitability, low age, and an experimental setting involving positron emission tomography most strongly predicted unpleasant and/or anxious reactions to psilocybin. The results confirm that non-pharmacological variables play an important role in the effects of psilocybin.
Barceloux, D. (2012). Medical Toxicology of Drug Abuse: Synthetized Chemicals and Psychoactive Plants. Medical Toxicology of Drug Abuse
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/9781118105955
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“This book provides a broad reference covering important drugs of abuse including amphetamines, opiates, and steroids. It also covers psychoactive plants such as caffeine, peyote, and psilocybin. It provides chemical structures, analytical methods, clinical features, and treatments of these drugs of abuse, serving as a highly useful, in-depth supplement to a general medical toxicology book. The style allows for the easy application of the contents to searchable databases and other electronic products, making this an essential resource for practitioners in medical toxicology, industrial hygiene, occupational medicine, pharmaceuticals, environmental organizations, pathology, and related fields.
2011
Elian, a a, Hackett, J., & Telepchak, M. J. (2011). Analysis of psilocybin and psilocin in urine using SPE and LC-tandem mass spectrometry. Lc-Gc North America
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“In this study, a solid-phase extraction (SPE) procedure is described that isolates both psilocybin and psilocin from urine samples. Extraction was performed using a mixed-mode SPE column. Samples of urine were diluted with aqueous phosphate buffer (pH 6). After the sample was applied to the SPE column, the sorbent was washed with deionized water and methanol. The analytes were eluted from the SPE column with 3 mL of ethyl acetate containing 2% ammonium hydroxide followed by 3 mL of methanol containing 4% ammonium hydroxide. The individual eluates were collected, evaporated to dryness, and dissolved in mobile phase (50 μL) before being combined for analysis by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). Chromatography was performed in gradient mode using a C18 column and a mobile phase consisting of acetonitrile and 0.1% aqueous formic acid. The total run time for each analysis was <5 min. The limits of quantitation or detection for this method were determined to be 10 ng/mL and 5 ng/mL for both psilocybin and psilocin, respectively. The method was found to be linear from 10 ng/mL to 1000 ng/mL (r 2> 0.995) for both compounds (psilocybin and psilocin). Recoveries of the psilocybin and psilocin were found to be greater than 85%. © 2011 Advanstar Communications, Inc.
Studerus, E., Kometer, M., Hasler, F., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2011). Acute, subacute and long-term subjective effects of psilocybin in healthy humans: A pooled analysis of experimental studies. Journal Of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881110382466
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“Psilocybin and related hallucinogenic compounds are increasingly used in human research. However, due to limited information about potential subjective side-effects, the controlled medical use of these compounds has remained controversial. We therefore analyzed acute, subacute, and long-term subjective effects of psilocybin in healthy humans by pooling raw data from eight double-blind placebo-controlled experimental studies conducted between 1999 and 2008. The analysis included 110 healthy subjects who had received 1-4 oral doses of psilocybin (45-315 μg/kg body weight). Although psilocybin dose-dependently induced profound changes in mood, perception, thought and self-experience; most subjects described the experience as pleasurable, enriching, and non-threatening. Acute adverse drug reactions, characterized by strong dysphoria and/or anxiety/panic, occurred only in the two highest dose-conditions in a relatively small proportion of subjects. All acute adverse drug reactions were successfully managed by providing interpersonal support and did not need psychopharmacological intervention. Follow-up questionnaires indicated no subsequent drug abuse, persisting perception disorders, prolonged psychosis or other long-term impairment of functioning in any of our subjects. The results suggest that the administration of moderate doses of psilocybin to healthy, high-functioning, and well-prepared subjects in context of a carefully monitored research environment is associated with an acceptable level of risk.
Moreno, J. L., Holloway, T., Albizu, L., Sealfon, S. C., & González-Maeso, J. (2011). Metabotropic glutamate mGlu2 receptor is necessary for the pharmacological and behavioral effects induced by hallucinogenic 5-HT2A receptor agonists. Neuroscience Letters
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2011.01.046
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“Hallucinogenic drugs, including mescaline, psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), act at serotonin 5-HT2A receptors (5-HT2ARs). Metabotropic glutamate receptor 2/3 (mGluR2/3) ligands show efficacy in modulating the responses induced by activation of 5-HT2ARs. The formation of a 5-HT2AR-mGluR2 complex suggests a functional interaction that affects the hallucinogen-regulated cellular signaling pathways. Here, we tested the cellular and behavioral effects of hallucinogenic 5-HT2AR agonists in mGluR2 knockout (mGluR2-KO) mice. Mice were intraperitoneally injected with the hallucinogens DOI (2mg/kg) and LSD (0.24mg/kg), or vehicle. Head-twitch behavioral response, expression of c-fos, which is induced by all 5-HT2AR agonists, and expression of egr-2, which is hallucinogen-specific, were determined in wild type and mGluR2-KO mice. [3H]Ketanserin binding displacement curves by DOI were performed in mouse frontal cortex membrane preparations. Head twitch behavior was abolished in mGluR2-KO mice. The high-affinity binding site of DOI was undetected in mGluR2-KO mice. The hallucinogen DOI induced c-fos in both wild type and mGluR2-KO mice. However, the induction of egr-2 by DOI was eliminated in mGlu2-KO mice. These findings suggest that the 5-HT2AR-mGluR2 complex is necessary for the neuropsychological responses induced by hallucinogens. © 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd.
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Williams, T. M., Sessa, B., Tyacke, R. J., Rich, A. S., Feilding, A., & Nutt, D. J. (2011). The administration of psilocybin to healthy, hallucinogen-experienced volunteers in a mock-functional magnetic resonance imaging environment: A preliminary investigation of tolerability. Journal Of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881110367445
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“This paper presents a formulation of the facilities block layout problem which explicitly considers uncertainty in material handling costs on a continuous scale by use of expected values and standard deviations of product forecasts. This formulation is solved using a genetic algorithm meta-heuristic with a flexible bay construct of the departments and total facility area. It is shown that depending on the attitude of the decision-maker towards uncertainty, the optimal design can change significantly. Furthermore, designs can be optimized directly for robustness over a range of uncertainty that is pre-specified by the user. This formulation offers a computationally tractable and intuitively appealing alternative to previous stochastic layout formulations that are based on discrete scenario probabilities.
Mishor, Z., McKenna, D. J., & Callaway, J. C. (2011). DMT and human consciousness. Altering Consciousness: Multidisciplinary Perspectives (Vols 1 And 2): History, Culture, And The Humanities; Biological And Psychological Perspectives
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“N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a potent psychedelic agent found in many plants and animals and is remarkably similar in its molecular structure to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT). DMT has been utilized extensively in South America as a psychoactive sacrament in the form of smoking mixtures, snuffs, pastes, clysters, and orally active brews for at least hundreds of years and possibly longer. This drug is a key component of an advanced indigenous technology that has only recently been noticed by modern science. Its consumption has not been merely a curiosity but rather a vital part of many medico-religious practices over a long period of time and across a wide geographic range. More recently, following scientific experimentation with the pure chemical in the late 1950s, DMT entered the awareness of modern experimental medicine and the popular culture. As a tryptamine derivative, DMT is thought to derive its psychoactivity primarily via the serotonergic neurotransmitter system. Unlike other serotonergic agents such as psilocybin, mescaline, and LSD, however, DMT occurs widely throughout the natural world. It is found in the barks, leaves, and flowers of numerous plant species and is synthesized in the bodies of mammals. DMT and two of its analogues, 5-hydroxy-DMT (bufotenine) and 5-methoxy-DMT (5-MeO-DMT), are currently the only psychedelics known to be produced endogenously within the human body, although their roles in the healthy human remain unclear. DMT may be a neurotransmitter in its own right and might be responsible for inducing dream visions during normal rapid eye movement (REM) sleep [see Kokoszka & Wallace, this volume]. Upon being smoked, snuffed, injected, or ingested (the later route in combination with other compounds that render it orally active), exogenous DMT facilitates powerful changes in awareness, perceptions, emotions, and cognition. Multicolored geometric images and transcendent feelings of oneness with the universe are some of the common phenomenological features associated with the DMT state. There have also been reports of contacts with external entities during the experience facilitated by this drug, although the ontological interpretation of such experiences is subject to speculation and debate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Carhart-Harris, R., Erritzoe, D., Stone, J., Wise, R. G., & Nutt, D. (2011). P.1.e.017 The functional brain correlates of the psychedelic state: an arterial spin labelling study with psilocybin. European Neuropsychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0924-977X(11)70495-3
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“Purpose of the study: This study sought to identify the functional brain correlates of the psychedelic state using arterial spin labelling and the classic psychedelic drug psilocybin. Psilocybin has been used for centuries in spiritual contexts and it has a more recent history of use in psychotherapy. Psilocybin produces a highly unusual altered state of consciousness, characterised by abnormal perception and vivid imagination, and it is not uncommon for users to describe their experiences as meaningful and beneficial [1]. Understanding how the brain changes during such states may reveal mechanisms necessary for the maintenance of normal waking consciousness, and suggest how the psychedelic state may be beneficial e.g. in the context of psychotherapy. Methods: Fifteen healthy, hallucinogen-experienced subjects (5 females and 10 males), mean age 34.1 (SD 8.2) participated in this study. Subjects underwent an anatomical scan followed by two task-free functional scans, each lasting 18 minutes. Pulsed arterial spin labelling was used to measure dynamic changes in cerebral blood flow (CBF) following the saline/drug infusions. All imaging was performed on a 3T GE HDx system. Whole brain perfusion was measured using single-shot pulsed arterial spin labelling and a QUIPSSII (Quantitative imaging of perfusion using a single subtraction) sequence with GE-EPI readout. 240 tag-control image pairs with 16 axial slices (3x3x6 mm voxel resolution, matrix = 64×64, with a 1 mm gap in the axial direction) were acquired. Solutions (10ml) were infused manually over 60 seconds beginning 6 minutes after the start of each functional scan. In every case, subjects received placebo (saline) in the first scan and psilocybin (2 mg) in the second. Within session changes in CBF following infusion were taken to the group level to reveal regions where CBF was significantly different after psilocybin versus after placebo. Results: Only decreased cerebral blood flow was observed after psilocybin (mixed effects analysis, cluster threshold = 2.3, p = 0.05) and this was significant in a number of subcortical and cortical regions. The decreases were remarkably well localized to key connector hubs in the brain, such as the thalamus, medial prefrontal cortex and posterior cingulate cortex, and ratings of the intensity of the drug effects correlated positively with the magnitude of the CBF decreases. Conclusions: This was the first psychedelic drug fMRI study of its kind and the first modern neuroimaging study of psilocybin. The results make an important contribution to our understanding of the mechanism of action of psychedelics and may have implications for our understanding of consciousness. The observed decreases in CBF were in brain regions that are known to have higher than average resting state metabolism and connectivity. Decreased activity in these hub regions may compromise the brain’s ability to integrate and constrain information processing, explaining the unconstrained quality of cognition in the psychedelic state. Moreover, the observed decreases were in regions that are typically hyperactive in depression, suggesting that psilocybin may be useful in this condition. This is consistent with recent reports of enduring positive mood following high-dose psilocybin [1].
Pettigrew, J. (2011). Iconography in Bradshaw rock art: Breaking the circularity. Clinical And Experimental Optometry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/j.1444-0938.2011.00648.x
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“BACKGROUND: Interpreting the symbols found in the rock art of an extinct culture is hampered by the fact that such symbols are culturally determined. How does one break the circularity inherent in the fact that the knowledge of both the symbols and the culture comes from the same source? In this study, the circularity is broken for the Bradshaw rock art of the Kimberley by seeking anchors from outside the culture. METHODS: Bradshaw rock art in the Kimberley region of Australia and Sandawe rock art in the Kolo region of Eastern Tanzania were surveyed in six visits on foot, by vehicle, by helicopter and from published or shared images, as well as from the published and online images of Khoisan rock art. RESULTS: Uniquely shared images between Bradshaw and Sandawe art, such as the ‘mushroom head’ symbol of psilocybin use, link the two cultures and indicate that they were shamanistic. Therefore, many mysterious features in the art can be understood in terms of trance visualisations. A number of other features uniquely link Bradshaw and Sandawe cultures, such as a special affinity for small mammals. There are also many references to baobabs in early Bradshaw art but not later. This can be explained in the context of the Toba super-volcano, the likely human transport of baobabs to the Kimberley and the extraordinary utility of the baobab. CONCLUSION: Many more mysterious symbols in Bradshaw rock art might await interpretation using the approaches adopted here.
Schmidt, A., Bachmann, R., Kometer, M., Seifritz, E., Stephan, K. E., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2011). P.1.c.009 Mismatch negativity encoding of prediction errors predicts ketamine-induced thought disorders. European Neuropsychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0924-977X(11)70400-X
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“Purpose: Pharmacological challenges with N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antagonists and 5-hydroxytryptamine2A receptor (5-HT2AR) agonists have been used to produce psychosislike symptoms in healthy humans [1]. Although NMDA antagonists have been reported to more faithfully reproduce the full spectrum of psychopathology associated with schizophrenia than 5-HT2AR agonists, both classes of drugs engender a number of positive symptoms in common that are similar to those observed in schizophrenia. However, a neurocognitive base underpinning the formation of positive-like symptoms and particularly of thought disorder in these two models of psychosis is still missing. Recent theories of psychosis posit that aberrant encoding of prediction errors (PE) maybe lead to positive-like symptoms [2]. This study investigated whether the encoding of PE depicted via the mismatch negativity (MMN) event-related potential (ERP) depends on NMDA and/or 5-HT2AR neurotransmission, and whether the effects of ketamine and psilocybin administration on MMN can be used to predict thought disorders in healthy volunteers. Methods: Two groups (ketamine: N=19; psilocybin: N=20) of healthy subjects received in a double-blind, within-subjects design placebo versus ketamine or psilocybin. Ketamine infusion was initiated with a 10 mg bolus over 5 min, followed by a continuous infusion with 0.006 mg/kg*min. Psilocybin was given p.o. at a dose of 115 mg/kg. The MMN memory trace effect (MMN slope) was measured using a roving oddball design [3]. Note that the MMN slope response is due to learning and cannot be due to differential states of frequency-specific auditory neurons in the temporal cortex. ERP recordings were made from 64 scalp electrodes (10-20 system). A set of fronto-central (Fz, F3 and F4) and temporal electrodes (TP7 and TP8) were selected for statistical analysis. At the end of each ERP recording session, psychosis-like symptoms were assessed using a modified Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale, with focus on positive-like symptoms. Summary of results: As predicted, the MMN response under placebo increased systematically with number of standard repetitions at frontal electrodes [F(2,74) = 3.9, p < 0.05, eta2 = 0.1]. This memory trace effect (MMN slope) was significantly disrupted by ketamine as evidenced by a significant triple interaction between electrode, treatment and standard repetition [F(1,37) = 8.4, p < 0.005, eta2 = 0.19]. In contrast, psilocybin did not disrupt the MMN slope. Moreover, linear regression analysis revealed that the drug-free MMN slope, i.e., the mean increase across repetition conditions, significantly predicted ketamine-induced thought disorders (r = -0.67; p < 0.005). In the psilocybin group, no comparable correlations were found. Conclusion: The data suggest that the NMDAR but not the 5-HT2A/1AR system is implicated in the encoding of PE. The disruption of PE signalling may contribute to the formation of thought disorders. The assessment of the MMN slope may provide also a promising approach to characterize early phases of schizophrenia and may reflect a useful biomarker of drug response concerning the treatment of psychosis, especially of thought disorders.
Grob, C. S., Danforth, A. L., Chopra, G. S., Hagerty, M., McKay, C. R., Halberstad, A. L., & Greer, G. R. (2011). Pilot study of psilocybin treatment for anxiety in patients with advanced-stage cancer. Archives Of General Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.116
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“Researchers conducted extensive investigations of hallucinogens in the 1950s and 1960s. By the early 1970s, however, political and cultural pressures forced the cessation of all projects. This investigation reexamines a potentially promising clinical application of hallucinogens in the treatment of anxiety reactive to advanced-stage cancer.
Kometer, M., Cahn, B. R., Andel, D., Carter, O. L., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2011). The 5-HT2A/1A agonist psilocybin disrupts modal object completion associated with visual hallucinations. Biological Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.10.002
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“Background Recent findings suggest that the serotonergic system and particularly the 5-HT2A/1A receptors are implicated in visual processing and possibly the pathophysiology of visual disturbances including hallucinations in schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease. Methods To investigate the role of 5-HT2A/1A receptors in visual processing the effect of the hallucinogenic 5-HT2A/1A agonist psilocybin (125 and 250 μg/kg vs. placebo) on the spatiotemporal dynamics of modal object completion was assessed in normal volunteers (n = 17) using visual evoked potential recordings in conjunction with topographic-mapping and source analysis. These effects were then considered in relation to the subjective intensity of psilocybin-induced visual hallucinations quantified by psychometric measurement. Results Psilocybin dose-dependently decreased the N170 and, in contrast, slightly enhanced the P1 component selectively over occipital electrode sites. The decrease of the N170 was most apparent during the processing of incomplete object figures. Moreover, during the time period of the N170, the overall reduction of the activation in the right extrastriate and posterior parietal areas correlated positively with the intensity of visual hallucinations. Conclusions These results suggest a central role of the 5-HT2A/1A-receptors in the modulation of visual processing. Specifically, a reduced N170 component was identified as potentially reflecting a key process of 5-HT2A/1A receptormediated visual hallucinations and aberrant modal object completion potential. © 2011 Society of Biological Psychiatry.
Tupper, J. (2011). Disrupting Ignorance and Settler Identities: The Challenges of Preparing Beginning Teachers for Treaty Education. in Education
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“A psychometric test (Holtzman ink-blot test) was carried out by 20 normal subjects given Psilocybin. The detailed results of the test will be published later. The results of the test indicate the importance of the affective disorders noted after 10 mg. Psilocybin. . Data on the possible therapeutic use of Psilocybin: in catatonic schizophrenia transient improvement in blocking and psychomotor inertia may be noted. In cases of melancholic depression mood reversal may last for several days. Nevertheless, the main value of Psilocybin, like LSD, is in psychoanalysis. It elicits a wealth of memories and releases inhibitions; these effects facilitate emotional abreaction and permit a better study of neurotic personality in cases of psychopathy, hysteria and obsession.
Labate, B. C., & Cavnar, C. (2011). The expansion of the field of research on ayahuasca: Some reflections about the ayahuasca track at the 2010 MAPS ” Psychedelic Science in the 21st Century” conference. International Journal Of Drug Policy
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2010.09.002
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“A recent conference sponsored by the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies united 90 presenters and 1100 participants with the goal of giving visibility to studies on the therapeutic potentials of psychedelics (psilocybin, MDMA, ibogaine, ayahuasca, etc.) in the treatment of often intractable ailments such as anxiety in terminal cancer patients, cluster headaches, obsessivecompulsive disorders, drug addiction, and post-traumatic stress disorders, as well as the role of these substances in human enhancement and wellbeing in general. The current article examines the nature of the contributions to the Ayahuasca Track and note the mix of persons, from research scientists to shamans, including many seekers of healing and spiritual experience, interested in the topic. We draw an overview of the track debates, and ideas that perhaps deserve more space are considered, and notable presentations are discussed. Finally, we reflect on the ethical, political and methodological challenges involved in research with ayahuasca. We hope that this text will provide a useful review of the current state of research in the field of ayahuasca studies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA KEY WORDS: Disorders Hallucinogenic Drugs Medicinal Herbs and Plants Treatment
Schmidt, A., Kometer, M., Csomor, P., Stephan, K., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2011). P.4.003 Mismatch negativity predicts cognitive impairments induced by ketamine in healthy volunteers. European Neuropsychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0924-977X(11)70092-X
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“Purpose: Schizophrenia patients exhibit deficits in cognition, resembling symptoms in healthy volunteers induced by the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antagonist ketamine and the 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) receptor agonist psilocybin [1]. A suitable tool to study learning is the event-related potential (ERP) mismatch negativity (MMN) within a roving oddball design. The measured impact of standard repetition on MMN (memory trace effect) in a roving paradigm promises to characterize the pathophysiological processes underlying cognitive impairment in schizophrenia more appropriately than classical oddball paradigms [2]. Hence, the purpose was to investigate, if the MMN memory trace generation and its underlying cognition depend on entire NMDAR or 5-HT neurotransmission. Specifically, the hypothesis was tested that the memory trace response maybe serves as predictor for cognitive impairments, interfered through alterations in NMDA and 5-HT mediated neurotransmission. Methods: Two groups (ketamine: N = 19; psilocybin: N=20) of healthy subjects received in a doubleblind, within-subjects design placebo versus ketamine or psilocybin. Ketamine infusion was initiated with a 10 mg bolus over 5 min, followed by a continuous infusion with 0.006 mg/kg×min. Psilocybin was given p.o. at a dose of 115 μg/kg. The MMN memory trace effect was measured using a roving oddball design [3]. Structured sequences of sinusoidal tones were presented, with sporadically changing tone. The first tone of a train represents the deviant, which became the standard tone after a few repetitions. Note that standards and deviants are physically identical, therefore ensuing mismatch responses are due to learning and not to stimuli differences per se. ERP recordings were made from 64 scalp electrodes (10-20 system). At the end of each ERP session, subjective cognitive deficits were assessed (Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale). Summary of results: As predicted, in the placebo condition, the MMN response at frontal electrodes increased systematically with number of standard repetitions. This memory trace effect was significantly disrupted by ketamine as evidenced by a significant triple interaction between electrode, treatment and standard repetition [F(2,36)= 6.3; p < 0.01; η2 = 0.26]. In contrast, psilocybin did not disrupt MMN (p > 0.33) and did not impair the memory trace effect. Multiple regression analysis showed that the MMN slope at baseline (MSB), i.e., the mean increase across repetition conditions, significantly predicted the cognitive impairment induced by ketamine (CI-k). In addition, also the Pearson correlation (MSB ∼ CI-k) was significant (r =-0.79, p < 0.0001). In the psilocybin group, no comparable correlations were found. Conclusion: The NMDAR antagonist S-ketamine significantly diminished the MMN memory trace effect in healthy volunteers, similar to schizophrenic. The exhibited correlation between MMN slope at baseline and cognitive deficits induced by ketamine provides the assumptions that the MMN slope could be regarded as predictor for cognitive impairments in schizophrenia, mediated through a modified NMDAR neurotransmission. In other words, a smaller MMN slope indicates a less resilient NMDAR system, what raises the probability to impair cognition. Moreover, the MMN slope could further be viewed as useful biomarker of drug response concerning cognition in schizophrenia spectrum disorders.
Halberstadt, A. L., & Geyer, M. A. (2011). Multiple receptors contribute to the behavioral effects of indoleamine hallucinogens. Neuropharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.01.017
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“Serotonergic hallucinogens produce profound changes in perception, mood, and cognition. These drugs include phenylalkylamines such as mescaline and 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine (DOM), and indoleamines such as (+)-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin. Despite their differences in chemical structure, the two classes of hallucinogens produce remarkably similar subjective effects in humans, and induce cross-tolerance. The phenylalkylamine hallucinogens are selective 5-HT2receptor agonists, whereas the indoleamines are relatively non-selective for serotonin (5-HT) receptors. There is extensive evidence, from both animal and human studies, that the characteristic effects of hallucinogens are mediated by interactions with the 5-HT2Areceptor. Nevertheless, there is also evidence that interactions with other receptor sites contribute to the psychopharmacological and behavioral effects of the indoleamine hallucinogens. This article reviews the evidence demonstrating that the effects of indoleamine hallucinogens in a variety of animal behavioral paradigms are mediated by both 5-HT2and non-5-HT2receptors. © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Móró, L., Simon, K., Bárd, I., & Rácz, J. (2011). Voice of the psychonauts: Coping, life purpose, and spirituality in psychedelic drug users. Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2011.605661
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“— Psychoactive drug use shows great diversity, but due to a disptoportionate focus on problematic drug use, predominant nonproblematic drug use remains an undetstudied phenomenon. Historic and anecdotal evidence shows that natural sources of “psychedelic” drugs (e.g., mescaline and psilocybin) have been used in leligious and spiritual settings for centuries, as well as for psycho-logical self-enhancement purposes. Our study assessed a total of 667 psychedelic drug users, other drug users, and drug nonusers by online questionnaires. Coping, life purpose, and spirituality were measured with the Psychological Inmiune Competence Inventory, the Purpose in Life test, and the Intrinsic Spirituality Scale, respectively. Results indicate that the use of psychedelic drugs with a purpose to enhance self-knowledge is less associated with probletns, and correlates positively with coping and spirituality. Albeit the meaning of “spirituality” may be ambiguous, it seems that a spiri-tually-inclined attitude in drug use may act as a ptotective factor against drug-related probletns. The autognostic use of psychedelic drugs tnay be thus hypothesized as a “training situation” that promotes self-enhancement by reheatsing personal coping stiategies and by gaining self-knowledge. However, to assess the actual efficiency and the speculated long-tertii benefits of these delibetately provoked exceptional experiences, further qualitative investigations are needed.
Clarke, Z. (2011). Psilocybin. In xPharm: The Comprehensive Pharmacology Reference
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/B978-008055232-3.62489-4
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“Psilocybin is one of two hallucinogenic compounds obtained from Teonanácatl, the sacred mushroom of Mexico, the other being psilocin. Although native Americans in Central and South America consumed psilocybe mushrooms for thousands of years, the first European record of their use was by a Spanish priest in the 16th century who recorded their use by the Aztec Indians. In 1957, Wasson published his own experience with the mushroom. This was soon followed by the isolation and recreational use of psilocybin, which was designated as a controlled substance in the United States in 1968. In the UK, psilocybin is present in the indigenous mushroom . Psilocybe semilanceata (magic mushroom; liberty cap). Other mushroom species, such as . Stropharia cubensis and . Conocybe spp, also contain psilocybin. Psilocybin mushrooms are illegal in the United States because they contain the Schedule I drugs psilocybin and psilocin. At high doses (5.0 g), psilocybin causes open eye hallucinations. The hallucinogenic and sympathomimetic properties of this agent can last for up to 6 hours. At lower doses (0.5-2.5 g), the user can experience cold chills, closed eye hallucinations, gas, and stomach cramps.. © 2007 Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Griffiths, R. R., Johnson, M. W., Richards, W. A., Richards, B. D., McCann, U., & Jesse, R. (2011). Psilocybin occasioned mystical-type experiences: Immediate and persisting dose-related effects. Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s00213-011-2358-5
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“Rationale This dose-effect study extends previous observations showing that psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having persisting positive effects on attitudes, mood, and behavior. Objectives This double-blind study evaluated psilocybin (0, 5, 10, 20, 30 mg/70 kg, p.o.) administered under supportive conditions. Methods Participants were 18 adults (17 hallucinogen-naïve). Five 8-h sessions were conducted individually for each participant at 1-month intervals. Participants were randomized to receive the four active doses in either ascending or descending order (nine participants each). Placebo was scheduled quasi-randomly. During sessions, volunteers used eyeshades and were instructed to direct their attention inward. Volunteers completed questionnaires assessing effects immediately after and 1 month after each session, and at 14 months follow-up. Results Psilocybin produced acute perceptual and subjective effects including, at 20 and/or 30 mg/70 kg, extreme anxiety/fear (39% of volunteers) and/or mystical-type experience (72% of volunteers). One month after sessions at the two highest doses, volunteers rated the psilocybin experience as having substantial personal and spiritual significance, and attributed to the experience sustained positive changes in attitudes, mood, and behavior, with the ascending dose sequence showing greater positive effects. At 14 months, ratings were undiminished and were consistent with changes rated by community observers. Both the acute and persisting effects of psilocybin were generally a monotonically increasing function of dose, with the lowest dose showing significant effects. Conclusions Under supportive conditions, 20 and 30 mg/70 kg psilocybin occasioned mystical-type experiences having persisting positive effects on attitudes, mood, and behavior. Implications for therapeutic trials are discussed.
Kjellgren, A., & Soussan, C. (2011). Heaven and hell-a phenomenological study of recreational use of 4-HO-MET in Sweden. Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2011.605699
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“— The psychoactive substance 4-HO-MET (4-hydroxy-N-methyl-N-ethyltryptamine) with psychedelic qualities is one of many legal so-called Internet drugs. The aim of this qualitative study was to establish an understanding of what characterizes its recreational use. Very little is known about the effects of this substance. Twenty-five anonymous Swedish experience reports (from persons aged 18–30 years) from public Internet forums were analyzed using the Empirical Phenomenological Psychological Method. The analysis produced 37 categories that were compiled into nine general themes: (1) motivation, preparation and expectation; (2) initial effects; (3) change of perception; (4) unfiltered awareness and intensified flow of information; (5) lateral cognition; (6) border between subject and object is erased; (7) heaven; (8) hell; and (9) subsiding effects. An understanding of the chronological happenings, called The Process, appeared out of the general structure. Drastic changes in cognitive, emotional and bodily functions were described. The motivation for use seemed to be driven by a strong curiosity. The experiences shifted between ” heaven ” and ” hell, ” but participants appeared satisfied and ready to repeat the experience. The experiences described show great similarity with clas-sic psychedelic substances as LSD or psilocybin. More research is needed about health hazards or possible therapeutic potentials.
Sun-Edelstein, C., & Mauskop, A. (2011). Alternative headache treatments: Nutraceuticals, behavioral and physical treatments. Headache
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/j.1526-4610.2011.01846.x
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“There is a growing body of evidence supporting the efficacy of various complementary and alternative medicine approaches in the management of headache disorders. These treatment modalities include nutraceutical, physical and behavioral therapies. Nutraceutical options comprise vitamins and supplements (magnesium, riboflavin, coenzyme Q(10), and alpha lipoic acid) and herbal preparations (feverfew, and butterbur). Although controversial, there are some reports demonstrating the benefit of recreational drugs such as marijuana, lysergic acid diethylamide and psilocybin in headache treatment. Behavioral treatments generally refer to cognitive behavioral therapy and biobehavioral training (biofeedback, relaxation training). Physical treatments in headache management are not as well defined but usually include acupuncture, oxygen therapy, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, occlusal adjustment, cervical manipulation, physical therapy, massage, chiropractic therapy, and osteopathic manipulation. In this review, the available evidence for all these treatments will be discussed.
2010
Carhart-Harris, R. L., & Nutt, D. J. (2010). User perceptions of the benefits and harms of hallucinogenic drug use: A web-based questionnaire study. Journal Of Substance Use
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3109/14659890903271624
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“This study used a web-based questionnaire to investigate user perceptions of the benefits and harms of hallucinogenic drug use. Over 600 forms were submitted. Users were asked to comment on the acute and prolonged effects of different drugs and to provide more specific information on how par-ticular drugs have harmed and/or helped them. Subjects reported relatively less harm associated with the classic hallucinogens, LSD and psilocybin, than other drugs specifically focused on in the ques-tionnaire (MDMA, cannabis, ketamine and alcohol). A wide-range of benefits was reported, includ-ing: help with mood disorders, addictions and migraine as well as more general long-term improvements in wellbeing. Symptoms of hallucinogen persisting perceptual disorder were reported by a number of subjects and these were most closely associated with use of LSD; however, few users regarded these effects as troubling. Eighty-one per cent of users reported having had a ‘spiritual experience’ on a hallucinogenic drug and over 90% considered ‘access to the unconscious mind’ to be a specific property of the classic hallucinogens. With caution, these findings support recent calls for a systematic investigation of the therapeutic potential of the classic hallucinogens and highlight the scope for empirical investigations of spiritual and psychodynamic phenomena.
Igov, E., & Manolov, I. (2010). Natural and synthetic tryptamine derivatives with physiological activity. Pharmacia
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“This review focuses on the chemistry and biomolecular mechanisms of action of several tryptamine derivatives. The substances chosen are of great biological importance. Serotonin and melatonin are both neurohormones, strongly interconnected metabolically. They regulate sleep, apetite, anger and dreaming. Another group of tryptamine derivatives, emphasized here, is the one of dimethyltryptamines. Psilocin, psilocybin, bufotenin are hallucinogens. Triptans are synthetic antimigraine drugs, now widely used.
Zerbisias, A. (2010). Tune in: psychedelic drugs are back. Toronto Star
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“Meanwhile, in Torrance, Calif., a single “trip” on psilocybin has had transformative psychic effects on the dying. “Psilocybin is a great compound to study,” says Dr. Charles Grob of the Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, where he has worked with a dozen cancer patients. “It doesn’t carry the political and cultural baggage that LSD has. They escaped from the laboratory at Harvard, in the early ’60s, when Dr. Timothy Leary inspired countless youths to “Turn on, tune in, drop out” – a phrase he came up with after Marshall McLuhan suggested he coin “something snappy” to promote the wonders of LSD. By then, hallucinogenic drugs already had a media-hyped reputation for causing paranoia, “chromosome damage” and even suicide. And, while it’s true that some people suffered from “bad trips,” today’s researchers insist most of those users were likely emotionally troubled to begin with.
Catlow, B. J. (2010). Involvement of 5-HT2A receptor in the regulation of hippocampal-dependent learning and neurogenesis. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences And Engineering
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“Aberrations in brain serotonin (5-HT) neurotransmission have been implicated in psychiatric disorders including anxiety, depression and deficits in learning and memory. Many of these disorders are treated with drugs which promote the availability of 5-HT in the synapse. Selective serotonin uptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are known to stimulate the production of new neurons in the hippocampus (HPC) by increasing synaptic concentration of serotonin (5-HT). However, it is not clear which of the 5-HT receptors are involved in behavioral improvements and enhanced neurogenesis. The current study aimed to investigate the effects of 5HT2A agonists psilocybin and 251-NBMeO and the 5HT2A/C antagonist ketanserin on neurogenesis and hippocampal-dependent learning. Agonists and an antagonist to the 5-HT2A receptor produced alterations in hippocampal neurogenesis and trace fear conditioning. Future studies should examine the temporal effects of acute and chronic psilocybin administration on hippocampal-dependent learning and neurogenesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
Schmidt, A., Csomor, P. A., Bachmann, R., Kometer, M., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2010). P.1.b.007 Emotional face processing in the 5-HT2A model of altered states of consciousness using event-related potentials. European Neuropsychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0924-977X(10)70280-7
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“Background: In the visual backward masking paradigm, the visibility of a visual target is disrupted by the presence of a mask that is presented after the target. Studies using backward masking suggest that conscious and nonconscious responses to complex emotional stimuli (facial expressions) occur via parallel cortical and subcortical circuits [1]. Subliminally (nonconscious) presented fearful faces were found to enhance early event-related potentials (ERPs) like the N170 component, whereas supraliminal (conscious) perception of fearful stimuli was associated with enhanced responses for later components (i.e., N400). Although many studies investigated neuronal correlates of facial perception, little is known about specific neurotransmissions during these processes. Emotional (facial) processing is disrupted in schizophrenia patients, and there is evidence that serotonergic (5-HT) neurotransmission is involved in the modulation of emotional face processing [2]. To investigate the influence of 5-HT on processing of emotional stimuli the present study assessed ERPs evoked by emotional facial expressions (happy/fearful) in healthy volunteers receiving a single dose of the psychotomimetic and 5-HT1A/2A agonist psilocybin. Methods: In a double-blind, placebo-controlled within-subjects design, 13 healthy volunteers received either psilocybin (115 mug/kg p.o) or placebo in a balanced and random sequence. On drug peak effect (80 min) subjects underwent backward masking test using visual stimuli of emotional (happy/fearful) and neutral facial expression (taken from the Ekman-Friesen series [3]). Targets were happy/fearful and neutral faces presented subliminal (10 ms) or supraliminal (200 ms), and were backward-masked by a neutral face. EEG was acquired at 512 Hz using the ActiveTwo system (Biosemi, The Netherlands) with 64 equally-spaced scalp electrodes (10-20 system). The mean values for the N170 component from the electrodes PO7/8 were subjected to a 3 (emotion) x 2 (treatment) repeated measures ANOVA separately for sub- and supraliminal presentation times. Upon significant interactions or main effect of the factor “emotion” post-hoc pair-wise comparisons were conducted using Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (Fisher LSD). The significance level was set to p<0.05. Results: Subliminal processing: Compared to placebo treatment with psilocybin reduced N170 amplitude (p<0.05). Furthermore, also the main effect of factor “emotion” (p<0.05), but not the interaction between the two factors reached statistical significance. Post-hoc testing revealed that the N170 amplitude for negative (p<0.001) and positive faces (p<0.05) but not for neutral faces was significantly reduced following psilocybin administration. Supraliminal processing: Whether the main effect of neither the factor “treatment” or “emotion”, nor their interaction attained significance. Conclusion: The present results implicate that 5-HT neurotransmission is involved in subliminal processing of emotional stimuli. Late ERP components (i.e., N400) will be analysed in a subsequent analysis (in prep.) to study the impact of 5-HT on supraliminal processing. The findings add to our understanding of the neurobiology of impaired emotional processing which is relevant in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia spectrum disorders and affective disorders.
Karst, M., Halpern, J. H., Bernateck, M., & Passie, T. (2010). The non-hallucinogen 2-bromo-lysergic acid diethylamide as preventative treatment for cluster headache: An open, non-randomized case series. Cephalalgia
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0333102410363490
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“Although the hallucinogenic properties of LSD and psilocybin are undesirable from both regulatory and patient safety perspectives, it was unclear to us at the outset whether a non-hallucinogenic analog could also provide meaningful relief to cluster headache (CH) patients. To address the question of whether the CH relief associated with these two structurally diverse compounds is related to the mechanisms triggering intoxication, we decided to investigate the efficacy of a nonhallucinogenic analog of LSD. Past studies concluded that BOL-148 is non-toxic and non-hallucinogenic. Only very mild side effects, if any, have been observed, when given in the dose range used in our project (30 mg/kg/body weight). No long-term behavioral or psychological effects from BOL-148 have been reported from past studies with more than 300 healthy, normal subjects, and 30 mg BOL-148 administered daily over four to five weeks failed to alter active psychosis in chronically ill schizophrenic women.
Halberstadt, A. L., & Nichols, D. E. (2010). Serotonin and Serotonin Receptors in Hallucinogen Action. Handbook Of Behavioral Neuroscience
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S1569-7339(10)70103-X
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“Hallucinogens are a class of substances that induce profound changes in perception and cognition. A closely related drug, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), produces euphoria and a feeling of empathy, with minimal sensory distortion. Both of these classes of substances produce their effects by interacting with the serotonergic system. This chapter will review the receptor interactions that contribute to the behavioral effects of serotonergic hallucinogens and MDMA. In rodents, the behavioral effects of hallucinogens such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin and mescaline are primarily mediated by activation of 5-HT2Areceptors. There is evidence, however, that 5-HT1Areceptors, 5-HT2Creceptors and dopamine receptors may play a secondary role. The molecular requirements for interaction of hallucinogens with the 5-HT2Areceptor are well-defined on the basis of structure-activity relationships. By contrast with the hallucinogens, MDMA is a potent releaser of monoamines that has complex effects on serotonergic, dopaminergic and noradrenergic systems. In recent years, psilocybin and MDMA have been administered to human volunteers in controlled clinical trials. Human studies confirm that the 5-HT2Areceptor plays a primary role in mediating the subjective effects of psilocybin, whereas the effects of MDMA are largely attributable to carrier-mediated release of serotonin. These findings emphasize the importance of clinical investigation of hallucinogenic drugs. Additionally, there is a growing consensus that these drugs are likely to show therapeutic efficacy in the treatment of certain psychiatric disorders. © 2010 Elsevier B.V.
Wark, C., & Galliher, J. F. (2010). Timothy Leary, Richard Alpert (Ram Dass) and the changing definition of psilocybin. International Journal Of Drug Policy
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.08.004
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“Background: This research focuses on the events leading to the 1968 U.S. federal prohibition of psilocybin. It is a study of duelling moral entrepreneurs-Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert vs. the Harvard University Administration. The goal is to show how the primary active compound in an ostensibly harmless fungus (the psilocybin mushroom) became controversial in less than a decade. Methods: We used books, newspapers, magazine articles and previously unpublished materials (including documents from the Harvard Archives) to analyze Leary and Alpert’s lives and careers through the early 1970s. Results: The prohibition of psilocybin in the U.S. was largely a product of Leary and Alpert’s involvement in the ” Harvard drug scandal” and their transformation from Harvard professors to countercultural icons. They tested the substance on a variety of human subjects and in doing so piqued the interest of Harvard undergraduates while drawing condemnation from other faculty and Harvard administrators. This case is theoretically interesting because unlike most illegal drugs, psilocybin was never linked to a threatening minority group, but to some of the nation’s most privileged youth. Conclusion: The Harvard administrators were not really moral entrepreneurs but Leary and Alpert clearly were. Although they were far from being prohibitionists, they were self-righteous crusaders on different but equally holy missions for the good of young and minority Americans. Ironically, due to their successes the possession of psilocybin was criminalized under United States federal law in 1968 (Pub. L. No. 90-639, Stat. 1361 1968 and Boire, 2002). This case study demonstrates that crusaders can be successful in changing culture even when laws are passed in futile attempts to control their behaviour, just as Leary predicted. © 2009 Elsevier B.V.
Díaz, J. L. (2010). Sacred plants and visionary consciousness. Phenomenology And The Cognitive Sciences
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s11097-010-9157-z
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“Botanical preparations used by shamans in rituals for divination, prophecy, and ecstasy contain widely different psychoactive compounds, which are incorrectly classified under a single denomination such as “hallucinogens,” “psychedelics,” or “entheogens.” Based on extensive ethnopharmacological search, I proposed a psychopharmacological classification of magic plants in 1979. This paper re-evaluates this taxonomy in the context of consciousness research. Several groups of psychodysleptic magic plants are proposed: (1) hallucinogens-psilocybin mushrooms, mescaline cacti, dimethyltryptamine snuffs, and the synthetic ergoline lysergic acid diethylamide induce strong perceptual changes, affective intensification, and cognitive enhancement. Their ethnobotanical uses include long lasting divination rituals, prophecy, and sacramental practice. (2) Trance-inducers-ergoline Convolvulaceae and South American Banisteriopsis produce quietness, abstraction, lethargy, mild sensorial and cognitive changes, and salient visual imagery changes used in trance rituals and specific divination practices. (3) Cognodysleptics-marijuana (tetrahydrocannabinol) and other terpene-containing plants induce changes in thought, imagination, and affective functions and are used in short-term divination or oneiromancy. (4) Deliriants-tropane-containing Solanaceae, wild tobacco, and Amanita muscaria (muscimol) induce a delirium characterized by dim and clouded consciousness, stupor, confusion, disorientation, perception distortion, difficulties in recollection, anxiety, irritability, excitation, and behavioral disorganization employed in sorcery, purification, or exorcism rituals. The core mental effects required for a drug to be used in shamanistic rituals include light-headedness, enhanced imagery, and experience intensification. This constellation was the reason why, in his classification of psychoactive compounds, the pioneer German psychopharmacologist Louis Lewin established in 1924 a group of drugs under the appropriate name of Phantastica. Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010.
Li, H. -Y., Chiang, M. -H., Lee, C. -I., & Yang, W. -J. (2010). Experimental investigation of thermal performance of vapor chamber heat sinks. In ASME 2010 10th Biennial Conference on Engineering Systems Design and Analysis, ESDA2010
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3109/00952999309001618
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“A procedure is outlined for comparing dependence potential and acute toxicity across a broad range of abused psychoactive substances. Tentative results, based on an extensive literature review of 20 substances, suggested that the margin of safety (“therapeutic index” varied dramatically between substances. Intravenous heroin appeared to have the greatest risk of dependence and acute lethality; oral psilocybin appeared to have the least. Hazards due to behavioral deficits, perceptual distortion, or chronic illness were not factored into the assessments. © 1993 Informa UK Ltd All rights reserved: reproduction in whole or part not permitted.
Bunch, K. S. (2010). Psilocybin and spiritual experience. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences And Engineering
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“Numerous reports indicate that psychedelic drugs can induce spiritual states of consciousness (De Rios & Janiger, 2003; Harner, 1973, La Barre, 1972). Early hallucinogenic research did not account for the influences of set and setting, and research was nearly dormant after the hallucinogen abuse that took place in the 1960’s. Human psychedelic research has recently been renewed, and experimental models have confirmed that psilocybin mushrooms can facilitate mystical experiences that have lasting personal meaning and spiritual significance in religious or spiritually-inclined individuals (Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Johnson, Richards, & Griffiths, 2008; Pahnke, 1966). Expanding on previous studies, this research explored set and setting variables associated with these experiences. Five hundred and four participants responded to an anonymous questionnaire examining the effects of psilocybin in non-laboratory settings. The majority of users indicated that their psilocybin experience(s) were among the five most spiritually significant events of their lives. Participants claimed that psilocybin produced changes in their spirituality and increased their well-being. Over half of the participants met the criteria for having a “complete” mystical experience on the Pahnke-Richards Mystical Experience Questionnaire, and those individuals rated their psilocybin experiences as more significant, unique, and personally meaningful when compared to the non-mystical group. Multiple variables were significantly correlated with having a mystical experience including mindset, age, frequency of use, dosage, and several expectancy, motivational, emotional, and environmental factors. Individuals who sought out psilocybin as a tool for growth more frequently reported having mystical experiences, which were associated with self-reports of increased life-satisfaction and personal well-being. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
Vollenweider, F. X., & Kometer, M. (2010). The neurobiology of psychedelic drugs: Implications for the treatment of mood disorders. Nature Reviews Neuroscience
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/nrn2884
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“After a pause of nearly 40 years in research into the effects of psychedelic drugs, recent advances in our understanding of the neurobiology of psychedelics, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin and ketamine have led to renewed interest in the clinical potential of psychedelics in the treatment of various psychiatric disorders. Recent behavioural and neuroimaging data show that psychedelics modulate neural circuits that have been implicated in mood and affective disorders, and can reduce the clinical symptoms of these disorders. These findings raise the possibility that research into psychedelics might identify novel therapeutic mechanisms and approaches that are based on glutamate-driven neuroplasticity.
M.E.C., L., I., D. V., A.J.H.P., V. R., & J., M. (2010). Hallucinogenic mushrooms: Should they be forbidden?. Clinical Toxicology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3109/15563651003740240
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“Objective: Hallucinogenic mushrooms are increasingly available. After some serious incidents with tourists who had used magic mushrooms, the Dutch government asked the “Coordination Centre for Assessment and Monitoring of new Drugs” (CAM) for a risk assessment. Methods: The CAM, with experts from scientific institutes involved in monitoring, research, and criminal investigation related to drugs of abuse, performed a risk assessment on hallucinogenic mushrooms according to established procedures: review of available literature, scoring of the risks for individual health, public health, public safety, and organized crime. Results: Scientifically, the risk assessment is straightforward: acute toxicity is mainly confined to anxiety or panic attacks and chronic toxicity to the occurrence of flashbacks. The number of incidents reported is low. The risks for disturbing public order and criminal involvement are small. The Amsterdam municipal health department described that in 1 out of 2500 cases of mushroom use, an ambulance was called. Ninety-two per cent of these calls concerned tourists. Only 2 out of 100,000 uses actually led to hospital admission. Tourists are considered a vulnerable group, using magic mushrooms in an unfamiliar setting, sometimes impatiently taking an overdose while waiting for the hallucinogenic effects to occur. The CAM advised the provision of high quality user information especially aimed at tourists. The CAM explicitly warned that prohibiting hallucinogenic mushrooms could create new, more dangerous situations: the use of stronger hallucinating drugs, and possible criminal involvement like hiding psilocybin in chocolates. Nevertheless, the Minister of Health prohibited the selling and use of hallucinogenic mushrooms in 2008. The arguments of the CAM were considered valid, but too difficult to carry out. Conclusion: Up till now the NPIC received fewer questions on magic mushroom use, but more on other drugs of abuse like GHB and cocaine. After the prohibition of magic mushrooms in the UK in 2005 its use declined in the first year and remained stable later on. The use of cocaine increased.
Jan, R. K., Lin, J. C., Lee, H., Sheridan, J. L., Kydd, R. R., Kirk, I. J., & Russell, B. R. (2010). Determining the subjective effects of TFMPP in human males. Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s00213-010-1911-y
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“Trifluoromethylphenyl piperazine (TFMPP) is an active constituent of a relatively new group of recreational drugs known as ‘party pills’. TFMPP has been anecdotally reported to induce mild psychedelic effects similar to lysergic acid diethylamide and psilocybin. There has been no research about the subjective effects of TFMPP in humans.
Kamata, T., Katagi, M., & Tsuchihashi, H. (2010). Metabolism and toxicological analyses of hallucinogenic tryptamine analogues being abused in Japan. Forensic Toxicology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s11419-009-0087-9
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“Hallucinogenic tryptamine analogues, an important class of drugs of abuse, can be naturally occurring or chemically synthesized compounds. In Japan, psilocin and psilocybin (ingredients of “magic mushrooms”) and 5-methoxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine (5-MeO-DIPT; a synthetic tryptamine) seem to be particularly problematic due to their extensive abuse. This review is focused on human metabolism and forensic toxicological analyses of the above three tryptamine analogues. In humans, psilocybin is rapidly dephosphorylated to form psilocin, and most of the psilocin is eventually conjugated to form its glucuronide. On the other hand, 5-MeO-DIPT is mainly metabolized via O-demethylation, 6-hydroxylation, and N-deisopropylation, partly followed by conjugation to form their sulfates and glucuronides. Suitable hydrolysis should be, therefore, applied for sensitive and effective analysis of the metabolites. In analyzing psilocin and psilocybin by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), derivatization is necessary for their discriminative identification. Although 5-MeO-DIPT and its three major metabolites can be analyzed by GC-MS without any derivatization, trimethylsilyl derivatization provides improvement of their peak shapes and intensities. In contrast to GC-MS, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry allow us not only to discriminate psilocin and psilocybin without derivatization, but also to directly analyze their conjugated metabolites.
Sysoeva, O., Ivanitsky, A., & Tonevitsky, A. (2010). P25-18 Molecular genetic basis of time perception in humans. Clinical Neurophysiology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S1388-2457(10)61040-1
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“Objective. Time perception is a key function of human and its disturbance is associated with many psychiatric diseases. Current study aims to investigate the association of genetic polymorphisms related to the activity of serotonin (5-HT) and dopamine (DA) systems (such as 5-HTTLPR, 5HT2a, MAOA, DAT, DRD2, COMT) with the individual differences in duration representation. Methods: The duration discrimination task (DT) in the order of several seconds was used. Forty-five right-handed Russian Caucasians males (18-35 years old) took part in the experiment. DT-based points of subjective equality (PSE) were calculated. Assuming the ‘dual klepsydra model’, these PSE values were transformed to equivalent values of parameter kappa, which is a measure of the ‘loss rate’ of internal (neural) representation of temporal durations. Results: Our data revealed the association between 5-HT-related genes and subjective time representation, but not with DA-related genes. Genotypes, characterized with the higher 5-HT transmission, such as 5-HTTLPR SS polymorphism compared with LL, ‘low expression’ variant (3) of MAOA VNTR gene compared with ‘high expression’ variant (4), TT polymorphism of 5-HT2a T102C gene compared with CC, have increased ‘loss rate’ of the cumulative duration representation. This is in line with an earlier study showing that parameter kappa; is significantly increased by psilocybin (agonist of 5-HT2a receptors) intake. Conclusions: These convergent findings suggest that increased level of 5-HT transmission, effectuated by internal (genetic) or external (neurochemical) factors, results in increased ‘loss rate’ and thus enhances ‘subjective shortening’ of elapsed time intervals. Therefore, the causal link from genes related to 5-HT activity to individual differences in duration representation is suggested.
Geyer, M. A., Nichols, D. E., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2010). Serotonin-related psychedelic drugs. In Encyclopedia of Neuroscience
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/B978-008045046-9.01160-8
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“Serotonergic hallucinogens include the prototypical compounds such as mescaline, psilocybin, and LSD, representing the chemical classes of phenethylamines, tryptamines, and ergolines. Known as psychedelics, these compounds induce dramatic alterations of perception, affect, consciousness, and the experience of self. As first discovered in animal studies and recently confirmed in humans, the psychological effects of psychedelics are primarily attributable to the activation of the 5-HT2Asubtype of serotonin receptors in brain. Research on psychedelic compounds has provided important insights into the neurobiology of consciousness and naturally occurring psychotic states and may lead to further advances in the development of psychiatric pharmacotherapeutics. © 2009 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.
2009
MATSUSHIMA, Y., SHIROTA, O., KIKURA-HANAJIRI, R., GODA, Y., & EGUCHI, F. (2009). Effects of Psilocybe argentipes on Marble-Burying Behavior in Mice. Bioscience, Biotechnology, And Biochemistry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1271/bbb.90095
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“Psilocybe argentipes is a hallucinogenic mushroom. The present study examined the effects of P. argentipes on marble-burying behavior, which is considered an animal model of obsessive-compulsive disorder. P. argentipes significantly inhibited marble-burying behavior without affecting locomotor activity as compared with the same dose of authentic psilocybin. These findings suggest that P. argentipes would be efficient in clinical obsessive-compulsive disorder therapy.
Freedman, D. X., & Pechnick, R. N. (2009). Psilocybin. In Encyclopedia of Drugs, Alcohol & Addictive Behavior
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“Very brief history and brief overview of ritual use, some effects
Flammer, R. ??, & Schenk-J??ger, K. M. (2009). Pilzvergiftungen – Die schattenseiten des myzetismus. Therapeutische Umschau
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1024/0040-5930.66.5.357
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“Most mushroom intoxications become evident within 12 hours with vomiting and diarrhea. They can be divided into incidents with a short latency (less than four hours) and incidents with a long latency (longer than four hours). As a rule of thumb amatoxin poisonings must be considered in case of symptoms appearing with a long latency (8-12-18 h), especially after consumption of non-controlled wild mushrooms. Shorter latencies do not exclude amatoxin poisoning. Large meals of mushrooms, which are rich in chitin, mixed meals and individual factors, may shorten latency and disguise amatoxin poisoning. Any vomiting and diarrhea after mushroom consumption is suspicious. Unless the mushrooms are not to be identified within 30 minutes by an expert, specific treatment for amatoxin poisoning must be started. Identification shall be achieved by macroscopic or microscopic means; and urine analysis for amatoxins are crucial. By commencing treatment before analysis, mortality rates may be as low as 5 %. Current standards in amatoxin poisoning treatment can be obtained at the Swiss Toxicological Information Centre (Phone 145), where contacts to mycologists are available as well. Emergency mycologists are listed on the website www.vapko.ch. Of the 18 different syndromes we present the most common and most important in Switzerland. In an overview all of them are listed. Early Gastrointestinal Syndrome with its short latency of less than 4 h and indigestion with a very variable latency are the most common. Psychotropic symptoms after consumption of fly agaric and panther cap are rare, in case of psilocybin-containing mushrooms, symptoms are frequent, but hardly ever lead to medical treatment. In case of renal failure and rhabdomyolysis of unknown origin, completing a patient’s history by questioning nutritional habits might reveal causal relationship with ingestion of orellanine-containing mushrooms or tricholoma equestre respectively. Mushrooms in the backyard are attractive for children. We discuss possible approaches. copyright 2009 by Verlag Hans Huber, Hogrefe AG
Nef, H. M., Möllmann, H., Hilpert, P., Krause, N., Troidl, C., Weber, M., et al. (2009). Apical regional wall motion abnormalities reminiscent to Tako-Tsubo cardiomyopathy following consumption of psychoactive fungi. International Journal Of Cardiology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2007.12.064
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“Consumption of natural hallucinogenic substances continues to be a problem. In this case we report from a young male patient presenting with an acute coronary syndrome with significant ST-elevation after the abuse of psychoactive fungi, commonly referred to as “magic mushrooms”. Coronary angiography excludes relevant coronary artery disease. In ventriculography contractile dysfunction with hypokinesia in the apical segments could be documented reminiscent to wall motion abnormalities in Tako-Tsubo cardiomyopathy (TTC). Cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging showed no pathological signal activity in the late-enhancement sequences ruling out myocardial infarction or inflammatory processes. Ventricular function normalized within several days. The active metabolite of psychoactive fungi psilocybin is known to interact with several different dopaminergic, adrenergic and serotonergic receptors. Thus, the pathomechanisms leading to contractile dysfunction after consumption of psychoactive fungi are reminiscent to those documented in TTC. © 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
R., F. (2009). Mushroom poisoning – The dark side of mycetism. Therapeutische Umschau
Plain numerical DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1024/0040-5930.66.5.357
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“Most mushroom intoxications become evident within 12 hours with vomiting and diarrhea. They can be divided into incidents with a short latency (less than four hours) and incidents with a long latency (longer than four hours). As a rule of thumb amatoxin poisonings must be considered in case of symptoms appearing with a long latency (8-12-18 h), especially after consumption of non-controlled wild mushrooms. Shorter latencies do not exclude amatoxin poisoning. Large meals of mushrooms, which are rich in chitin, mixed meals and individual factors, may shorten latency and disguise amatoxin poisoning. Any vomiting and diarrhea after mushroom consumption is suspicious. Unless the mushrooms are not to be identified within 30 minutes by an expert, specific treatment for amatoxin poisoning must be started. Identification shall be achieved by macroscopic or microscopic means; and urine analysis for amatoxins are crucial. By commencing treatment before analysis, mortality rates may be as low as 5 %. Current standards in amatoxin poisoning treatment can be obtained at the Swiss Toxicological Information Centre (Phone 145), where contacts to mycologists are available as well. Emergency mycologists are listed on the website www.vapko.ch. Of the 18 different syndroms we present the most common and most important in Switzerland. In an overview all of them are listed. Early Gastrointestinal Syndrom with its short latency of less than 4h and indigestion with a very variable latency are the most common. Psychotropic symptoms after consumptions of fly agaric and panther cap are rare, in case of psilocybin-containing mushrooms, symptoms are frequent, but hardly ever lead to medical treatment. In case of renal failure and rhabdomyolysis of unknown origin, completing a patient’s history by questioning nutritional habits might reveal causal relationship with ingestion of orellanin-containing mushrooms or tricholoma equestre respectively. Mushrooms in the backyard are attractive for children. We discuss possible approaches. © 2009 by Verlag Hans Huber, Hogrefe AG.
Ghory, F. S., & Kazmi, Q. B. (2009). Larval developmental stages of Athanas dimorphus Ortmann 1894 (Crustacea, Caridea, Alpheidae) in labortatory from Pakistan. Pakistan Journal Of Marine Sciences
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881116684335
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“Data suggest psychedelics such as psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) may hold therapeutic potential in the treatment of addictions, including tobacco dependence. This retrospective cross-sectional anonymous online survey characterized 358 individuals (52 females) who reported having quit or reduced smoking after ingesting a psychedelic in a non-laboratory setting ⩾1 year ago. On average, participants smoked 14 cigarettes/day for 8 years, and had five previous quit attempts before their psychedelic experience. Of the 358 participants, 38% reported continuous smoking cessation after psychedelic use (quitters). Among quitters, 74% reported >2 years’ abstinence. Of the 358 participants, 28% reported a persisting reduction in smoking (reducers), from a mode of 300 cigarettes/month before, to a mode of 1 cigarette/month after the experience. Among reducers, 62% reported >2 years of reduced smoking. Finally, 34% of the 358 participants (relapsers) reported a temporary smoking reduction before return..
Matsushima,Yoshihiro; Eguchi, Fumio; Kikukawa, Tadahiro and Matsuda, T., & and Takahide Matsuda,. (2009). Historical overview of psychoactive mushrooms. Inflammation And Regeneration
Plain numerical DOI: 10.2492/inflammregen.29.47
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“Humans have used psychoactive mushrooms for medical, recreational, religious and ritual purposes since pre-history. Previous studies have clarified that psychoactive mushrooms produce psychoactive agents such as psilocybin, psilocin, ibotenic acid, and muscimol. However, the status of psychoactive mushrooms in most countries as illegal hallucinogens has prevented full investigation of their biochemical properties. Recent studies have shown that many psychoactive agents pass through the blood-brain barrier and act on neu- rotransmitter receptors. Psilocybin and psilocin are 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A/C receptor agonists, respectively, while ibotenic acid is a glutamic acid receptor agonist and muscimol is a GABAA receptor agonist. A new psychoac- tive agent, aeruginascin, has also been isolated from psychoactive mushrooms, and it is expected that more useful compounds will be discovered as the technology of component analysis advances. In addition, it has been shown that psilocybin and psilocin have high therapeutic efficiency for obsessive-compulsive disorder, which is a difficult-to-treat nervous disease. The increase of nervous diseases in modern society has thus given new importance to psychoactive mushrooms. In this review, we summarize the history of the use of psychoactive mushrooms, from pre-history to the modern age, describe their classification and distribution, survey previous studies, and discuss their therapeutic effects for difficult-to-treat nervous disease. The utiliza- tion and distribution of psychoactive mushrooms in Japan is given special attention, as there are few articles on this subject.
Auf dem Hövel, J. (2009). Was ist pharmakologisches Enhancement?. Telepolis
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“Es wohnt eine feine Ironie in der Aufforderung, anhand der psychoaktiven Substanzen die Fragen des gelingenden Lebens wieder neu zu diskutieren. Die Diskussion um die sogenannten “kognitiven Enhancer” und das “Neuro-Enhancement” erinnert ein wenig an die 60er Jahre, als mit den Psychedelika wie LSD und Psilocybin plötzlich Wirkstoffe zur Verfügung standen, die tief in die Psyche eingreifen, und mittels derer, so hofften manche, ein neues Zeitalter, wenn doch nicht eingeläutet, so doch zumindest unterfüttert werden konnte. Heute sind die Ziele bescheidener, es geht um die Steigerung der geistigen Leistungsfähigkeit und die positive Modifikation der Stimmung. Gleichwohl lässt sich aus der frühen Vergangenheit lernen, welche Mechanismen greifen, wenn es um die pharmakologischen Beeinflussung des menschlichen Geistes geht.
2008
Biley, F. C. (2008). Psychedelic medicine: New evidence for hallucinogenic substances and treatments. Volumes one and two. Psychedelic horizons. Journal Of Psychiatric And Mental Health Nursing
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2850.2008.01256.x
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“Reviews the books, Psychedelic medicine: New evidence for hallucinogenic substances and treatments (Vol 1) by Michael J. Winkelman & Thomas B. Roberts (see record [rid]2007-11120-000[/rid]); Psychedelic medicine: New evidence for hallucinogenic substances and treatments (Vol 2) by Michael J. Winkelman & Thomas B. Roberts (see record [rid]2007-11123-000[/rid]) and Psychedelic Horizons by Thomas B. Roberts (see record [rid]2006-03196-000[/rid]). Volume 1 of this two-volume series explores the social and clinical context of psychedelic medicines, various medical/healing applications such as the use of psilocybin, LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), marijuana and/or MDMA in the treatment of cluster headaches, OCD, PTSD, with people with AIDS and for those with advanced cancer. Volume 2 has a distinct psychotherapeutic and shamanic feel about it. It opens with a section on treating substance abuse with chapters on the use of hallucinogenics in the treatment of alcoholism, the use of ketamine and general psychedelic psychotherapy for addictions, and the use of peyote, ayahuasca and ibugaine in a variety of situations. Psychedelic Horizons is a book that is perhaps very difficult to categorize. Part autobiographical, part scientific, part visionary, imaginative and wishful thinking, part class notes write-up, it is clear that this is an accomplished text written by an insightful ‘multistate’ polymath. The textual style is relaxed, and takes you on a journey through what I have interpreted as an essentially Grofian-based book. This book is very different from the first two volumes reviewed here, and could be read almost recreationally. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Vagts, D. F. (2008). Harold Berman and Soviet Law: from its Challenge to the West to Dissolution. Emory Law Journal
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“The article focuses on the life and works of deceased law professor Harold Berman who is also known as a prominent scholar of the Soviet law. Includes a passing reference to Doyle. “..Cyrus Eaton, a Cleveland industrialist who took a serious interest in trying to diminish tensions between the two countries, held a reception for Khruschchev. Griswold, a fellow Clevelander, wrangled an invitation for Hal to the reception, and in the receiving line, Hal, in his fluent Russian, asked the Chairman for access to Moscow. The chairman told an aide to arrange it, and off they went. One thing they had to do before departing was to rent their house; somebody recommended a promising young instructor in Harvard’s psychology department named Timothy Leary. Leary, in his haze of LSD and psilocybin, managed to wreck the interior of the Berman home. After their return, Ruth invited a group of faculty wives to tea; she had to warn them to walk carefully in the foyer so as to avoid the ceremonial hole that Leary and his friends had chopped in the floor. Thus Hal became acquainted with American litigation practices when he returned. Perhaps that experience helped Hal take part in Russian litigation on behalf of the holders of Arthur Conan Doyle’s literary property..”
González-Maeso, J., Ang, R. L., Yuen, T., Chan, P., Weisstaub, N. V., López-Giménez, J. F., et al. (2008). Identification of a serotonin/glutamate receptor complex implicated in psychosis. Nature
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/nature06612
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“The psychosis associated with schizophrenia is characterized by alterations in sensory processing and perception. Some antipsychotic drugs were identified by their high affinity for serotonin 5-HT2A receptors (2AR). Drugs that interact with metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR) also have potential for the treatment of schizophrenia. The effects of hallucinogenic drugs, such as psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide, require the 2AR and resemble some of the core symptoms of schizophrenia. Here we show that the mGluR2 interacts through specific transmembrane helix domains with the 2AR, a member of an unrelated G-protein-coupled receptor family, to form functional complexes in brain cortex. The 2AR-mGluR2 complex triggers unique cellular responses when targeted by hallucinogenic drugs, and activation of mGluR2 abolishes hallucinogen-specific signalling and behavioural responses. In post-mortem human brain from untreated schizophrenic subjects, the 2AR is upregulated and the mGluR2 is downregulated, a pattern that could predispose to psychosis. These regulatory changes indicate that the 2AR-mGluR2 complex may be involved in the altered cortical processes of schizophrenia, and this complex is therefore a promising new target for the treatment of psychosis.
Geyer, M. A., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2008). Serotonin research: Contributions to understanding psychoses. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2008.06.006
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“The history of serotonin research is closely related to the study of hallucinogenic drugs that function as agonists at serotonin-2A receptors. The fundamental idea that psychotic states seen in psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia might be attributable, in part, to abnormalities in serotonergic systems began with the almost simultaneous discovery of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin and serotonin. Sixty years of study have confirmed early speculations regarding the important relationship between serotonin and both drug-induced and disorder-based psychotic states. Now, modern biochemical, pharmacological, behavioral, neuroimaging, genetic and molecular biological sciences are converging to understand how serotonergic systems interact with other monoaminergic and glutamatergic systems to modulate states of consciousness and contribute to psychotic disorders such as the group of schizophrenias. This review summarizes experimental assessments of the serotonergic hallucinogen model psychosis in relation to the serotonin hypothesis of schizophrenia. © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Groups, P. (2008). National Armenians as Foreign Citizens in the EU-27 ( groups of 10 , 000 + ) National Armenians as Foreign Citizens in the EU-27 ( groups of 10 , 000 + ). North
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“During the last few years an increasing number of young Norwegians have used Psilocybe semilanceata (Fr. ex Secr.) Kummer as a narcotic. The first report on misuse of this mushroom was made in autumn 1977, and knowledge of its hallucinogenic properties has gradually become public through reports in the popular media. The ingestion of P. semilanceata has in some cases resulted in the need for treatment in hospital. Many species of the genus Psilocybe are found in Norway, but only P. semilanceata is regarded as hallucinogenic. It occurs on grassy sites in most parts of the country from the middle of August to the middle of October. P. semilanceata is known to contain indole alkaloids, of which psilocybin is considered to be the main constituent. In order to carry out detailed studies of the potency of Norwegian P. semilanceata a quantitative method was required for the assay of psilocybin. Several methods have previously been used for analysis of the hallucinogenic components of Psilocybe mushrooms. Both paper chromatography and thin-layer chromatography have been employed in conjunction with colorimetric reagents as well as with UV spectroscopy. Gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry have been applied for the analysis of psilocin and psilocybin. Recently two high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) methods have been published. White separated the three compounds psilocin, psilocybin and baeocystin on a silica column, and Perkal et al. described the quantitation of psilocin and psilocybin by ion-exchange chromatography. We have developed a HPLC method based on a silica column which provides a simple, rapid and accurate quantitation of the psilocybin content of Norwegian P. semilanceata.
Hermle, L., Kovar, K. A., Hewer, W., & Ruchsow, M. (2008). Halluzinogen-induzierte psychische störungen. Fortschritte Der Neurologie Psychiatrie
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1055/s-2008-1038191
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“OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the current research on hallucinogen induced psychiatric disorders. In addition to LSD and psilocybin hallucinogens of biologic origin are increasingly used by adolescents and young adults. METHODS: Relevant literature and related articles were identified by means of a computerized MEDLINE search including the years 1997-2007. As keywords “hallucinogen induced psychosis”, “hallucinogen induced flashback”, “hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD)” were used. Finally, 64 journal articles and books out of 103 were included in the review. RESULTS: Acute psychotic syndromes in adolescents are rarely due to intoxications with hallucinogenic drugs. However, clinical relevance of flashback phenomena as post-hallucinogenic psychiatric disorder has to be disputed. Because of the high popularity of biogenic hallucinogens and LSD knowledge of intoxications and resulting psychiatric disorders as well as medical complications and therapeutical approaches are clinically important. Especially intoxications with drugs of herbal origin like tropanalkaloids play an important role in emergency situations. [References: 64] English Abstract. Journal Article. Review
Hermle, L., Kovar, K. -a, Hewer, W., & Ruchsow, M. (2008). [Hallucinogen-induced psychological disorders]. Fortschritte Der Neurologie-Psychiatrie
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1055/s-2008-1038191
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“OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the current research on hallucinogen induced psychiatric disorders. In addition to LSD and psilocybin hallucinogens of biologic origin are increasingly used by adolescents and young adults. METHODS: Relevant literature and related articles were identified by means of a computerized MEDLINE search including the years 1997 – 2007. As keywords “hallucinogen induced psychosis”, “hallucinogen induced flashback”, “hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD)” were used. Finally, 64 journal articles and books out of 103 were included in the review. RESULTS: Acute psychotic syndromes in adolescents are rarely due to intoxications with hallucinogenic drugs. However, clinical relevance of flashback phenomena as post-hallucinogenic psychiatric disorder has to be disputed. Because of the high popularity of biogenic hallucinogens and LSD knowledge of intoxications and resulting psychiatric disorders as well as medical complications and therapeutical approaches are clinically important. Especially intoxications with drugs of herbal origin like tropanalcaloids play an important role in emergency situations.
Oerter, M. (2008). Bestimmung des Biogenen Kohlenstoffanteils in Ersatzbrennstoffen und Beitrag der Mitverbrennung zur Reduktion von Brennstoffbedingten CO 2-emissionen in der Zementindustrie. Vdi Berichte
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/npp.2011.261
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“Psychotomimetics like the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antagonist ketamine and the 5-hydroxytryptamine2A receptor (5-HT2AR) agonist psilocybin induce psychotic symptoms in healthy volunteers that resemble those of schizophrenia. Recent theories of psychosis posit that aberrant encoding of prediction errors (PE) may underlie the expression of psychotic symptoms. This study used a roving mismatch negativity (MMN) paradigm to investigate whether the encoding of PE is affected by pharmacological manipulation of NMDAR or 5-HT2AR, and whether the encoding of PE under placebo can be used to predict drug-induced symptoms. Using a double-blind within-subject placebo-controlled design, S-ketamine and psilocybin, respectively, were administrated to two groups of healthy subjects. Psychological alterations were assessed using a revised version of the Altered States of Consciousness (ASC-R) questionnaire. As an index of PE, we computed changes in MMN amplitudes as a function of the number of preceding standards (MMN memory trace effect) during a roving paradigm. S-ketamine, but not psilocybin, disrupted PE processing as expressed by a frontally disrupted MMN memory trace effect. Although both drugs produced positive-like symptoms, the extent of PE processing under placebo only correlated significantly with the severity of cognitive impairments induced by S-ketamine. Our results suggest that the NMDAR, but not the 5-HT2AR system, is implicated in PE processing during the MMN paradigm, and that aberrant PE signaling may contribute to the formation of cognitive impairments. The assessment of the MMN memory trace in schizophrenia may allow detecting early phases of the illness and might also serve to assess the efficacy of novel pharmacological treatments, in particular of cognitive impairments.
Richards, W. A. (2008). The phenomenology and potential religious import of states of consciousness facilitated by psilocybin. In Archive for the Psychology of Religion
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1163/157361208X317196
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“Accompanying the resumption of human research with the entheogen (psychedelic drug), psilocybin, the range of states of consciousness reported during its action, including both nonmystical and mystical forms of experience, is surveyed and defined. The science and art of facilitating mystical experiences is discussed on the basis of research experience. The potential religious import of these states of consciousness is noted in terms of recognizing the reality of the spiritual, in better understanding the biochemistry of revelation, and in exploring the potentially positive contributions that mystical consciousness may effect in psychological treatment.
Wackermann, J., Wittmann, M., Hasler, F., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2008). Effects of varied doses of psilocybin on time interval reproduction in human subjects. Neuroscience Letters
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2008.02.006
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“Action of a hallucinogenic substance, psilocybin, on internal time representation was investigated in two double-blind, placebo-controlled studies: Experiment 1 with 12 subjects and graded doses, and Experiment 2 with 9 subjects and a very low dose. The task consisted in repeated reproductions of time intervals in the range from 1.5 to 5 s. The effects were assessed by parameter κ of the ‘dual klepsydra’ model of internal time representation, fitted to individual response data and intra-individually normalized with respect to initial values. The estimates over(κ, ̂) were in the same order of magnitude as in earlier studies. In both experiments, κ was significantly increased by psilocybin at 90 min from the drug intake, indicating a higher loss rate of the internal duration representation. These findings are tentatively linked to qualitative alterations of subjective time in altered states of consciousness. © 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
2007
Yu, Y., Jiang, Z. -H., Wang, G., Qin, D. -C., & Xu, Z. -Y. (2007). Effects of sample surface on the accuracy of near infrared predictive model of air dried density of bamboo. Beijing Linye Daxue Xuebao/journal Of Beijing Forestry University
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.12.006
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“Psilocybin, a psychoactive alkaloid contained in hallucinogenic mushrooms, is nowadays given a lot of attention in the scientific community as a research tool for modeling psychosis as well as due to its potential therapeutic effects. However, it is also a very popular and frequently abused natural hallucinogen. This review summarizes all the past and recent knowledge on psilocybin. It briefly deals with its history, discusses the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, and compares its action in humans and animals. It attempts to describe the mechanism of psychedelic effects and objectify its action using modern imaging and psychometric methods. Finally, it describes its therapeutic and abuse potential. ?? 2013 Elsevier B.V. and ECNP.
McCambridge, J., Winstock, A., Hunt, N., & Mitcheson, L. (2007). 5-Year trends in use of hallucinogens and other adjunct drugs among UK dance drug users. European Addiction Research
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1159/000095816
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“AIMS To describe and assess trends in the use of hallucinogens and other adjunct drugs over a 5-year period. DESIGN Repeated-measures cross-sectional survey. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS Annual magazine-based survey targeting people who use drugs in dance contexts. MEASUREMENTS Lifetime use prevalence (ever used); age of first use; current use prevalence (any use within the last month), and extent of use within the last month (number of days used) for LSD, psilocybin, ketamine, GHB and nitrates. FINDINGS Prevalence increases for psilocybin, ketamine, GHB and nitrates use have been detected, with a sharp recent rise in current psilocybin use in 2002-2003 contrasting with more gradual and comprehensive evidence of increased ketamine use throughout the period 1999-2003. The declining prevalence of LSD use in general population surveys is replicated in this sentinel population study. CONCLUSIONS The rise in prevalence of hallucinogen and other adjunct drugs identified among dance drug users may be mirrored by wider prevalence increases among young people with a consequent need to study these trends carefully and to develop effective interventions, where required.
Kotwica, M., Czerczak, S., & Kolacinski, Z. (2007). Poisonings with street-drugs in the city of Lodz (1993-2002) . Clinical Toxicology
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“Objective: Substances of abuse have been known in many cultures and geographic zones, and they were used for different reasons, from religious to hedonistic purposes. Poland, a region of Central Europe, has never been an area of religious use of narcotics, but lately the number of drug abusers has been increasing. Methods: Our material consists of patients treated for poisonings with street-drugs in the Department of Acute Poisonings, Lodz, Poland during the period 1993-2002. Results: During the analyzed period (10 years) the number of patients treated for street-drugs intoxication has grown 12 times. The type of substance of abuse has also changed. In the early 90s opiates dominated (over 84% all poisonings with street-drugs). In 2002 all groups of drug abuse were noted, from natural or synthetic opiates, amphetamine, cocaine, LSD to Cannabis sativa derivatives (THC). We also discovered intoxications with hallucinogenic mushrooms (containing psilocybin or psilocin) and the plant Datura stramonium (containing tropine alkaloids). The most common street-drugs used were amphetamine and opiates; THC derivatives were the third. Amphetamine and THC derivatives were the most frequent sources of intoxication in young people 15-20 years of age. Amphetamine and opiate poisonings were the commonest in young males, 21-30 years old. We discovered a fast growing number of youngsters between 15-20 years of age (in 1993-1994 – 7 patients, in 2001-2002 – 135 patients). Suicidal attempts were noted in less than 13% of patients, more than 82% of intoxication cases were the result of overdose in drug-dependent patients, over 5% were accidental and 0.2% criminal poisonings. In this period of time (1993-2002) 4 persons died. Conclusion: Drug abuse is a serious problem in Poland, it has expanded in recent years and it is likely to expand further in the years to come. The treatment of drug addicted people needs to be improved and a suitable prevention program should be developed. The drug addicted treatment system should comprise a network of units where patients could be detoxified and would receive psychiatric treatment and a network of rehabilitation units preparing the patients for their new life
Heekeren, K., Neukirch, A., Daumann, J., Stoll, M., Obradovic, M., Kovar, K. A., et al. (2007). Prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex and its attentional modulation in the human S-ketamine and N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) models of psychosis. Journal Of Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881107077734
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“Patients with schizophrenia exhibit diminished prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the acoustic startle reflex and deficits in the attentional modulation of PPI. Pharmacological challenges with hallucinogens are used as models for psychosis in both humans and animals. Remarkably, in contrast to the findings in schizophrenic patients and in animal hallucinogen models of psychosis, previous studies with healthy volunteers demonstrated increased levels of PPI after administration of low to moderate doses of either the antiglutamatergic hallucinogen ketamine or the serotonergic hallucinogen psilocybin. The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of moderate and high doses of the serotonergic hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and the N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist S-ketamine on PPI and its attentional modulation in humans. Fifteen healthy volunteers were included in a double-blind cross-over study with two doses of DMT and S-ketamine. Effects on PPI and its attentional modulation were investigated. Nine subjects completed both experimental days with the two doses of both drugs. S-ketamine increased PPI in both dosages, whereas DMT had no significant effects on PPI. S-ketamine decreased and DMT tended to decrease startle magnitude. There were no significant effects of either drug on the attentional modulation of PPI. In human experimental hallucinogen psychoses, and even with high, clearly psychotogenic doses of DMT or S-ketamine, healthy subjects failed to exhibit the predicted attenuation of PPI. In contrast, PPI was augmented and the startle magnitude was decreased after S-ketamine. These data point to important differences between human hallucinogen models and both animal hallucinogen models of psychosis and naturally occurring schizophrenia.
Vollenweider, F. X., Csomor, P. A., Knappe, B., Geyer, M. A., & Quednow, B. B. (2007). The effects of the preferential 5-HT2A agonist psilocybin on prepulse inhibition of startle in healthy human volunteers depend on interstimulus interval. Neuropsychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301324
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“Schizophrenia patients exhibit impairments in prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the startle response. Hallucinogenic 5-HT(2A) receptor agonists are used for animal models of schizophrenia because they mimic some symptoms of schizophrenia in humans and induce PPI deficits in animals. Nevertheless, one report indicates that the 5-HT(2A) receptor agonist psilocybin increases PPI in healthy humans. Hence, we investigated these inconsistent results by assessing the dose-dependent effects of psilocybin on PPI in healthy humans. Sixteen subjects each received placebo or 115, 215, and 315 microg/kg of psilocybin at 4-week intervals in a randomized and counterbalanced order. PPI at 30-, 60-, 120-, 240-, and 2000-ms interstimulus intervals (ISIs) was measured 90 and 165 min after drug intake, coinciding with the peak and post-peak effects of psilocybin. The effects of psilocybin on psychopathological core dimensions and sustained attention were assessed by the Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale (5D-ASC) and the Frankfurt Attention Inventory (FAIR). Psilocybin dose-dependently reduced PPI at short (30 ms), had no effect at medium (60 ms), and increased PPI at long (120-2000 ms) ISIs, without affecting startle reactivity or habituation. Psilocybin dose-dependently impaired sustained attention and increased all 5D-ASC scores with exception of Auditory Alterations. Moreover, psilocybin-induced impairments in sustained attention performance were positively correlated with reduced PPI at the 30 ms ISI and not with the concomitant increases in PPI observed at long ISIs. These results confirm the psilocybin-induced increase in PPI at long ISIs and reveal that psilocybin also produces a decrease in PPI at short ISIs that is correlated with impaired attention and consistent with deficient PPI in schizophrenia.
Moreno, F. A., & Delgado, P. L. (2007). Psilocybin treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychedelic Medicine: New Evidence For Hallucinogenic Substances As Treatments., Vol. 1
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“Moreno and Delgado’s chapter illustrates the use of psilocybin in the treatment of OCD, a chronic and common psychiatric condition that is resistant to conventional treatment. Their studies reflect the combined applications of insights obtained from anecdotal reports with an understanding of the serotonin-psychointegrator interactions to develop hypotheses regarding the clinically efficacy of psilocybin in treating OCD. The clinical data indicated a reduction of OCD symptoms in all patients, including complete remission in some. They speculate on the importance of psychedelics in facilitating developmental psychosocial insights. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
Merkur, D. (2007). A psychoanalytic approach to psychedelic psychotherapy. In Psychedelic medicine: New evidence for hallucinogenic substances as treatments.
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“Sandison introduced the term psycholytic, ‘mind-loosening,’ in 1960 to designate the use of LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), mescaline, and psilocybin as adjuvants to existing psychotherapies. The doses were small enough (25 to 150 micrograms of LSD) that patients were able to converse throughout their sessions. For the therapists, psycholytic therapy was business as usual with a patient who sometimes was high. Osmond coined the term psychedelic, ‘mind-expanding,’ in 1957 to designate the mystical experiences that tend to occur at higher dosage levels (200 and more micrograms of LSD). Originally a chemotherapy, psychedelic therapy was soon modified through the addition of several weeks of intensive psychotherapy prior to the psychedelic experience, and debriefing for a few days afterward. For the most part, psycholytic approaches were favored in Europe, psychedelic approaches in America. In the 1970s, researchers at the Maryland Psychiatric Research Center attempted to integrate the two procedures. A therapy that used psychedelics in addition to interpretation was, by definition, incapable of being psychoanalytic; and psychoanalysts largely ignored clinical work with psychedelics. Thirty and more years later, the Freudian model that was inadequate to the explanation of high-dose psychedelic experiences is itself largely passé. The clinical challenge for psychoanalytic psychedelic psychotherapists is to learn what to say to patients at high-dosage levels that produce intensifications of the rapport in fashions consistent with Grof’s clinical experiences at low-dosage levels. Talking about oral, anal, and Oedipal symbolism, ego psychology’s defense mechanisms, and Kleinian theory’s internal objects are all ill-advised. The task is to interpret what a patient’s unconscious integrative process is trying to communicate to consciousness. For present purposes, the varieties of psychedelic experiences will be divided into six categories: apperceptual, neurotic, narrative fantasy, psychotomimetic, creative, and unitive phenomena. I will discuss interventions appropriate to each category in turn. The fine-tuning of my proposals, through the discovery of precise interpretations that are most helpful clinically, can only be made through trial-and-error in the course of clinical work with individual patients. Unfortunately, for political reasons methodologically normative clinical research is presently illegal. This chapter accordingly proposes a variety of interventions that may currently be used lawfully to guide emergency work with people who have engaged in illicit self-experimentation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
Adamczyk, A., Sadakierska-Chudy, A., Janoszka, J., Rymkiewicz, A., & Dobosz, T. (2007). Hallucinogenic fungi (psilocybe). Part II. Identification of Psilocybe semilanceata by PCR | Halucynogenne grzyby — łysiczki (Psilocybe). Cześć II. Identyfikacja Psilocybe semilanceata przy pomocy techniki PCR. Archiwum Medycyny Sa̧dowej I Kryminologii
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“Psilocybe semilanceata belongs to the genus of Psilocybe; it is a hallucinogenic fungus, frequently found in regions with high rainfall, in the grass and moss. There are estimated to be as many as eight Psilocybe hallucinogenic species containing psychoactive alkaloids, such as psilocybin and psilocin, which may cause visual, auditory and other hallucinations, as well as profound changes in the perception of time and space. Since identification of P semilanceata in a form different than a fresh mushroom is almost impossible, the authors made an attempt at developing a method of fungi identification based on the PCR technique, which could be helpful in a fight against dangerous consumption of these hallucinogens by the youth. Detection of the specific DNA sequence for P semilanceata brought good results; the test may be commonly employed in forensic practice in the future.
Attema-de Jonge, M. E., Portier, C. B., & Franssen, E. J. F. (2007). [Automutilation after consumption of hallucinogenic mushrooms]. Nederlands Tijdschrift Voor Geneeskunde
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/02699200400015291
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“Two young men, 25 and 32 years old, presented with severe automutilation by knife wounds after consumption of hallucinogenic mushrooms. The first patient had also used cocaine, cannabis and alcohol, while the second patient had only used the hallucinogenic mushrooms. Both patients were treated symptomatically and survived despite their severe stab wounds. Psilocybin-containing mushrooms are used as mind-altering drugs. These drugs may sometimes induce ‘bad trips’, a psychotic reaction accompanied by fear, panic, and dangerous behaviour, especially when used in combination with other drugs and alcohol or by psychiatrically unstable patients. During a bad trip, patients may hurt themselves. Because the duration of the psychotic and sympathicomimetic effects of psilocybin after ingestion of mushrooms is short (up to 6 h), and since psilocin itself causes no permanent organ toxicity, the treatment of psilocybin intoxication is only symptomatic. The diagnosis ofpsilocybin intoxication is hampered by the lack of routinely available, rapid and sensitive, analytical methods for the quantification ofpsilocybin and its active metabolite psilocin.
2006
Griffiths, R. R., Richards, W. A., McCann, U., & Jesse, R. (2006). Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance. Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s00213-006-0457-5
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“RATIONALE: Although psilocybin has been used for centuries for religious purposes, little is known scientifically about its acute and persisting effects. OBJECTIVES: This double-blind study evaluated the acute and longer-term psychological effects of a high dose of psilocybin relative to a comparison compound administered under comfortable, supportive conditions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The participants were hallucinogen-naïve adults reporting regular participation in religious or spiritual activities. Two or three sessions were conducted at 2-month intervals. Thirty volunteers received orally administered psilocybin (30 mg/70 kg) and methylphenidate hydrochloride (40 mg/70 kg) in counterbalanced order. To obscure the study design, six additional volunteers received methylphenidate in the first two sessions and unblinded psilocybin in a third session. The 8-h sessions were conducted individually. Volunteers were encouraged to close their eyes and direct their attention inward. Study monitors rated volunteers’ behavior during sessions. Volunteers completed questionnaires assessing drug effects and mystical experience immediately after and 2 months after sessions. Community observers rated changes in the volunteer’s attitudes and behavior. RESULTS: Psilocybin produced a range of acute perceptual changes, subjective experiences, and labile moods including anxiety. Psilocybin also increased measures of mystical experience. At 2 months, the volunteers rated the psilocybin experience as having substantial personal meaning and spiritual significance and attributed to the experience sustained positive changes in attitudes and behavior consistent with changes rated by community observers. CONCLUSIONS: When administered under supportive conditions, psilocybin occasioned experiences similar to spontaneously occurring mystical experiences. The ability to occasion such experiences prospectively will allow rigorous scientific investigations of their causes and consequences.
S.K., D., & K., N. (2006). Poisonous and hallucinogenic mushrooms of India. International Journal Of Medicinal Mushrooms
Plain numerical DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1615/IntJMedMushr.v8.i3.70
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“Mycetism or mycetismus (mushroom poisoning) is caused by toxins present in the basidiomata even after it is properly cooked. There are mainly seven different types of poisoning syndromes (Phalloides syndrome, Orellanus syndrome, Gyromitra syndrome, Muscarin syndrome, Pantherina syndrome, Psilocybin syndrome, and Gastrointestinal syndrome), along with Paxillus syndrome and coprine syndrome. The Indian subcontinent consists of several ecoclimatic zones and it is a treasure trove of fungal diversity. In fact, the Western Ghats, which form a long mountainous region along the west coast of India, is considered as one of the hot spots of biodiversity. The mushroom biota of this large country is still not explored fully and to date only about 1200 species of fungi belonging to the orders Agaricales, Russulales, and Boletales are described in comparison to about 14,000 species of mushrooms reported from all over the world. This represents only 10% of the world biota of mushrooms, and the majority of the other 90% remain to be discovered in the tropical regions of the world. The present review deals with the distribution of poisonous and hallucinogenic species of mushrooms described from India. A survey of the literature reveals the species of fungi belonging to various genera that are reported from India, which cause the major types of mushroom poisoning syndromes. Among the total number of mushrooms reported from India, only a very small percentage are poisonous or hallucinogenic. Even though there are several reports in the newspapers about poisoning after consumption of mushrooms, there is only one report of a clinically proven case of mushroom poisoning by Chlorophyllum molybdites in India. There is a need for greater awareness of mushroom poisoning among the general public and clinicians in India. The need of a database of poisonous mushrooms and the symptoms of mushroom poisoning along with the germ plasm collections is emphasized. There is a great need of chemical investigations of Indian mushrooms for their active principles, which can possibly be used in a wide range of metabolic and infectious diseases, such as cancer, AIDS, and others. © 2006 by Begell House, Inc.
Harvey, B., Bailey, B., & Blais, R. (2006). Globalization and changing epidemiology: the example of lawn mushrooms . Clinical Toxicology
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“Background: Our PCC used to consider unintentional lawn mushroom ingestions harmless and managed them at home without GI decontamination if they fulfilled criteria to r/o Amanita and Galerina species, and psilocybin-containing mushrooms. However, in the last year this approach was challenged by the following two cases. Case Report: C 1: A 65-year-old woman living in the suburb ate 6 small brown mushrooms picked from her neighbor’s lawn. Nine hours later, she developed vomiting and profuse diarrhea with painful cramps in her lower limbs. She presented with metabolic acidosis (bicarb 11 mmol/L) and then developed slight elevations of her LFT’s (ALT/AST 142/96 IU/L) and creatinine (166 �mol/L-1.88 mg/dL), which peaked at 48 h and normalized after the third day. The culprit was later identified as Lepiota Josserandii, an amatoxin-containing mushroom which had never been observed in our area before. C 2: While dining in a hotel’s restaurant in a downtown area, a couple shared a mushroom they had picked from the indoor hotel’s flower bed. In the following 21/2 h, they both experienced vomiting, diarrhea and abdominal pain. Their labs remained normal but they required IV rehydration and antiemetics. They recovered uneventfully. The remains of the mushroom was identified as Green Sporea Lepiota, another mushroom not found in our area. It was later discovered that the flower bed’s potting soil had been imported from California. Case Discussion: These two cases involved toxic lepiotas never observed in our local flora and consequently, our protocol for lawn mushroom ingestions did not rule them out. With phenomena like globalization and climate change those situations are likely to happen again. Since those ingestions are common in children, lepiotas, particularly those containing amatoxin such as L Josserandii, should be ruled out before considering home management. Conclusion: Globalization and other factors are likely going to make us reconsider some of our management protocols. Despite this, most lawn mushroom ingestions will remain harmless. However, better screening criteria for lepiotas and eventually for other kind of mushrooms non-indigenous to our area, should be developed to prevent significant poisonings
Hermanns-Clausen, M., & Stedtler, U. (2006). Hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms in overdose: experiences in Baden-W�rttemberg, Germany . Clinical Toxicology
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“Background: Pattern and incidence of poisoning after misuse of psychotropic plants is not well investigated in Germany. The only exception is cannabis sativa. Information about botanical drugs is available via the Internet and young people especially are unaware that some of these drugs are potent intoxicants. Furthermore, plants like angel’s trumpet are easily available. Case Report: We retrospectively analyzed all overdoses after misuse of psychotropic plants and mushrooms reported to the PIC Freiburg (2002-4). Not included was cannabis sativa. Data were analyzed for patient age, sex, ingested substances, and severity using the poisoning severity score (PSS). Results: PIC-Freiburg was consulted in 45,963 cases (2002-2004). There was a total of 121 poisonings after misuse of psychotropic plants or mushrooms (0.3%). Anticholinergic plants: Eighty-seven patients (aged 13-55 years, median 17.5) were included in this study (19 female, 66 male, 2 not documented). Atropa belladonna (8), Brugmansia spec. alone (72) or together with Datura stramonium (3) or Datura stramonium alone (4) were misused. Parts of plant (22), tea (46), or soup (5) were ingested. Three patients smoked leaves of angel’s trumpet. Severity of poisoning was severe (2), moderate (60), minor (22), or not documented (3) (PSS). Psilocybin containing mushrooms: Twenty-eight patients (14-30 years, median 17.5), 4 female, 23 male, 1 not documented. Dried (18) or fresh (2) mushrooms were eaten, and mushrooms were smoked (1). Preparation of mushrooms remained unknown in 7 cases. PSS: moderate (9), minor (18), without symptoms (1), Nutmeg: Five patients (2 male, 3 female); age 12-23 years; PSS minor 5. Coingestion with drugs 1. Other Psychotropic plants/mushrooms: A 25-years-old man ingested seeds of ipomea (PSS 1). Case Discussion: Mainly anticholinergic plants were misused (72%) and caused more frequently moderate and severe intoxications (71%) than misuse of magic mushrooms (32%). Poisoning after misuse of amanita muscaria/pantherina and psychotropic plants like khat/Ayahuasca was not reported. Conclusion: Poisoning after abuse of psychotropic plants was sporadic. Severe toxicity was rare and only seen in 2 cases of angel’s trumpet poisoning
Barrett, S. P., Darredeau, C., & Pihl, R. O. (2006). Patterns of simultaneous polysubstance use in drug using university students. Human Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/hup.766
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“Simultaneous polysubstance use (SPU) is a common phenomenon, yet little is known about how various substances are used with one another. In the present study 149 drug-using university students completed structured interviews about their use of various substances. For each substance ever used, participants provided details about the type, order and amount of all substances co-administered during its most recent administration. Alcohol, tobacco and cannabis were frequently co-administered with each other and with all other substances. Chi-squared tests revealed that when alcohol was used in combination with any of cannabis, psilocybin, MDMA, cocaine, amphetamine, methylphenidate (ps < 0.01) or LSD (p < 0.05) its initial use preceded the administration of the other substance. Paired samples t-tests revealed that when alcohol was used with cocaine (p < 0.01) or methylphenidate (p < 0.05) it was ingested in greater quantities than when used in their absence. Patterns of cannabis use were not systematically related to other substances administered. Finally, using one-sample t-tests, tobacco use was demonstrated to be increased relative to ‘sober’ smoking rates when used with alcohol, cannabis, psilocybin, MDMA, cocaine, amphetamine (ps < 0.001), LSD (p < 0.01) or methylphenidate (p < 0.05). Results suggest that many substances are routinely used in a SPU context and that the pattern in which a substance is used may be related to other substances co-administered.
Moreno, F. A., Wiegand, C. B., Taitano, E. K., & Delgado, P. L. (2006). Safety, tolerability, and efficacy of psilocybin in 9 patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal Of Clinical Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.4088/JCP.v67n1110
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“BACKGROUND: Anecdotal reports suggest that psychedelic agents may relieve symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). This modified double-blind study investigated the safety, tolerability, and clinical effects of psilocybin, a potent 5-HT(1A) and 5-HT(2A/2C) agonist, in patients with OCD. METHOD: Nine subjects with DSM-IV-defined OCD and no other current major psychiatric disorder participated in up to 4 single-dose exposures to psilocybin in doses ranging from sub-hallucinogenic to frankly hallucinogenic. Low (100 microg/kg), medium (200 microg/kg), and high (300 microg/kg) doses were assigned in that order, and a very low dose (25 microg/kg) was inserted randomly and in double-blind fashion at any time after the first dose. Testing days were separated by at least 1 week. Each session was conducted over an 8-hour period in a controlled environment in an outpatient clinic; subjects were then transferred to a psychiatric inpatient unit for overnight observation. The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (YBOCS) and a visual analog scale measuring overall obsessive-compulsive symptom severity were administered at 0, 4, 8, and 24 hours post-ingestion. The Hallucinogen Rating Scale was administered at 8 hours, and vital signs were recorded at 0, 1, 4, 8, and 24 hours after ingestion. The study was conducted from November 2001 to November 2004. RESULTS: Nine subjects were administered a total of 29 psilocybin doses. One subject experienced transient hypertension without relation to anxiety or somatic symptoms, but no other significant adverse effects were observed. Marked decreases in OCD symptoms of variable degrees were observed in all subjects during 1 or more of the testing sessions (23%-100% decrease in YBOCS score). Repeated-measures analysis of variance for all YBOCS values revealed a significant main effect of time on Wilks lambda (F = 9.86, df = 3,3; p = .046), but no significant effect of dose (F = 2.25, df = 3,3; p = .261) or interaction of time and dose (F = 0.923, df = 9,45; p = .515). Improvement generally lasted past the 24-hour timepoint. CONCLUSIONS: In a controlled clinical environment, psilocybin was safely used in subjects with OCD and was associated with acute reductions in core OCD symptoms in several subjects.
Stamets, P. (2006). Can mushrooms help save the world?. Explore: The Journal Of Science And Healing
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.explore.2005.12.011
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“Paul Stamets, founder and director of Fungi Perfecti, LLC., and director of the Fungi Perfecti Research Laboratories (www.fungi.com), has been a mycologist and mushroom enthusiast for more than 30 years. A pioneer in the cultivation of edible and medicinal mushrooms, he is credited with the discovery of four new mushroom species. Stamets is the author of five books on mushroom cultivation, use, and identification, including MycoMedicinals: An Informational Treatise on Mushrooms; Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World; Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms; Mushroom Cultivator; Psilocybe Mushrooms & Their Allies; and his most recent one Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World. Stamets holds a vision of a deeply interconnected world environment and firmly believes that a greater knowledge of fungi can solve many of the world’s pollution problems as well as some of the world’s health problems. He has a strong interest in saving the old growth forests of the Pacific Northwest where many ancient species of mushrooms can be found. A dedicated explorer with a passion to preserve, protect, and clone as many ancestral strains of mushrooms as possible, he was the 1998 recipient of the Collective Heritage Institute’s Bioneers Award and the 1999 recipient of the Founder of a New Northwest Award from the Pacific Rim Association of Resource Conservation and Development Councils. EXPLORE interviewed Stamets at his home and mushroom farms near Seattle, Washington, in the summer of 2005. © 2006 by Elsevier Inc.
Anastos, N., Barnett, N. W., Pfeffer, F. M., & Lewis, S. W. (2006). Investigation into the temporal stability of aqueous standard solutions of psilocin and psilocybin using high performance liquid chromatography. Science And Justice – Journal Of The Forensic Science Society
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S1355-0306(06)71579-9
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“This paper reports an investigation into the temporal stability of aqueous solutions of psilocin and psilocybin reference drug standards over a period of fourteen days. This study was performed using high performance liquid chromatography utilising a (95:5% v/v) methanol: 10 mM ammonium formate, pH 3.5 mobile phase and absorption detection at 269 nm. It was found that the exclusion of light significantly prolonged the useful life of standards, with aqueous solutions of both psilocin and psilocybin being stable over a period of seven days. © The Forensic Science Society 2006.
De Wit, H. (2006). Towards a science of spiritual experience. Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s00213-006-0462-8
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“The author calls for psychopharmacologists to adopt an open mind to the full domain of human drug experience. The use of certain psychoactive plants by people in their search for meaning and significance in their lives through a variety of spiritual practices is cited. The relevance of a study on the use of the psychotropic drug psilocybin is cited.
2005
Balaji, B., Lucas, J. R., Anderson, J. M., & Csonka, L. N. (2005). Timing of Induction of Osmotically Controlled Genes in. Society
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s00213-011-2358-5
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“This dose-effect study extends previous observations showing that psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having persisting positive effects on attitudes, mood, and behavior.
Sarlo, B. (2005). Posmemoria, reconstrucciones. In Tiempo Pasado: Cultura de la memoria y giro subjetivo. Una discusión.
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“Psychedelic drugs have long been known to be capable of inducing mystical or transcendental experiences. However, given the common “recreational” nature of much present-day psychedelic use, with typical doses tending to be lower than those commonly taken in the 1960s, the extent to which illicit use of psychedelics today is associated with mystical experiences is not known. Furthermore the mild psychedelic MDMA (“Ecstasy”) is more popular today than “full” psychedelics such as LSD or psilocybin, and the contribution of illicit MDMA use to mystical experiences is not known. The present study recruited 337 adults from the website and newsletter of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS), most of whom reported use of a variety of drugs both licit and illicit including psychedelics. Although only a quarter of the sample reported “spiritual” motives for using psychedelics, use of LSD and psilocybin was significantly positively related to scores on two well-known indices of mystical experiences in a dose-related manner, whereas use of MDMA, cannabis, cocaine, opiates and alcohol was not. Results suggest that even in today’s context of “recreational” drug use, psychedelics such as LSD and psilocybin, when taken at higher doses, continue to induce mystical experiences in many users. ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]; Copyright of Journal of Psychoactive Drugs is the property of Haight Ashbury Publications and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Maruyama, T., Kawahara, N., Fukiharu, T., Yokoyama, K., Makino, Y., & Goda, Y. (2005). {DNA} and chemical analyses of commercial fly agaric-related products. Shokuhin Eiseigaku Zasshi
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3358/shokueishi.46.49
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“Since June 6, 2002, psilocin and psilocybin-contg. fungi (commonly called “magic mushrooms”) have been regulated by the Narcotics and Psychotropics Control Law in Japan. However, various fly agaric-related products are now entering the Japanese market via the internet. In this study, fly agaric-related products available in this way were investigated for raw materials by DNA anal. and for additives by chem. anal. Nucleotide sequence anal. of the mitochondrial 12S rDNA region suggested that these fly agaric-related products originate from Amanita muscaria or A. muscaria var. persicina. Furthermore, they were classified into three strains based on the ITS2-LSU nucleotide sequence. Harmine derivs. and/or tryptamine derivs. were detected in some of these products by LC/MS anal. In accordance with this, the matK gene of Peganum harmala was found in all of the harmine deriv.-contg. samples. [on SciFinder(R)]
Espiard, M. L., Lecardeur, L., Abadie, P., Halbecq, I., & Dollfus, S. (2005). Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder after psilocybin consumption: A case study. European Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2005.04.008
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“The recurrence of flashbacks without acute or chronic hallucinogen consumption has been recognized in the DSM IV criteria as the hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD). Perceptual disturbances may last for 5:years or more and represent a real psychosocial distress. We reported here a case of a 18-year-old young man presenting HPPD after a mixed intoxication with psylocibin and cannabis. This report shows symptomatic recurrences persisting more than 8 months. Various differential diagnoses were evoked and our therapeutic strategies were described. © 2005 Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved.
Sard, H., Kumaran, G., Morency, C., Roth, B. L., Toth, B. A., He, P., & Shuster, L. (2005). SAR of psilocybin analogs: Discovery of a selective 5-HT2Cagonist. Bioorganic And Medicinal Chemistry Letters
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2005.06.104
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“An SAR study of psilocybin and psilocin derivatives reveals that 1-methylpsilocin is a selective agonist at the h5-HT2Creceptor. The corresponding phosphate derivative, 1-methylpsilocybin, shows efficacy in an animal model for obsessive-compulsive disorder, as does 4-fluoro-N,N- dimethyltryptamine. These results suggest a new area for development of novel 5-HT2Cagonists with applications for drug discovery. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
McElhatton, P. R. (2005). Drug abuse and pregnancy . Clinical Toxicology
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“Objective: Drug abuse during pregnancy is one of the most difficult and emotive of all drug safety issues that raises concerns regarding both maternal and fetal well-being. It often presents parents and clinicians with ethical, medico-legal and emotional dilemmas as to whether the pregnancy should continue (1). Although the methods of collecting and analysing such data are highly variable, it is apparent that the number of people with illicit drug problems has increased over the past 5 years (2-5). In the UK, based on a population aged 16 -74 years is estimated that drug abuse is more common in men than in women (32% vs 21%), but it is generally recognised that the statistics for women are under- reported (2,6). Among women dependency patterns vary with age and ethnicity (2). 17% of drug users reported injecting their drugs, the mean age being 21 y. The starting age range was 11- 44 years with 9% being under 16 years (1). Cannabis (24%) is the most commonly self-reported drug followed by amphetamines (7%). The lifetime prevalence rates for cocaine, ecstasy and LSD were approximately 4% compared with 3% for tranquillisers and 1% for volatile substances. There is equivocal data on the use of anabolic steroids and misuse of prescription medicines by women (3-5). The effects of alcohol, tobacco and caffeine are excluded from this paper. Methods: Most of the studies of drug abuse in pregnancy have serious limitations; the choice of a suitable control group is difficult (drug users vs non-drug users) and there are numerous potential confounders. For example, multiple drug use (including alcohol or smoking, caffeine), the dose and purity of the substance, infections (STD, HIV), ill-defined nutritional status, insufficient antenatal care, obstetric and neonatal risk factors and excessive dropouts, must be addressed, but are difficult to control and evaluate. There is growing concern about the long-term effects on postnatal development, for which currently there are no prenatal diagnostic tests. Results: Evaluation of dose response relationships is difficult and as illicit drugs can cause fetotoxicity at any stage of pregnancy establishing a causal relationship is not often possible. Little is known about the fetotoxicity of substances such as GHB, ketamine, psilocybin, phencyclidine and solvents unless accompanied by severe maternal toxicity. Although there are isolated reports of miscarriages, CNS, eye, and limbs malformations in infants born to women taking LSD, no causal relationship has been established. There is no clear evidence that the misuse of benzodiazepines is associated with an increased risk of malformations. Chronic use, especially near term has been associated with the ‘floppy infant’ syndrome. Changes in legislation concerning the use of cannabis may over time increase our knowledge of its reproductive effects. There are isolated case reports of malformations following cannabis (smoking or inhalation) use in pregnancy, but no conclusive evidence to indicate an increased incidence of malformations. Cannabis use is strongly associated with the use of tobacco and alcohol, which can be fetotoxic also. Cumulative data on heroin and methadone misuse provide no convincing evidence of an increased risk of malformations, but there is evidence of increased neonatal toxicity and SIDS. The limited data on buprenorphine use in the management of opiate dependence is encouraging (7). Cocaine, crack and derivatives have been clearly associated with an increased incidence of abruptio placentae, maternal and neonatal intracranial haemorrhage. However, the alleged association with urogenital defects and gastroschisis remains unproven. Amphetamines and related stimulants have been associated with an increased risk of CVS malformations in animals, but evidence is lacking in human pregnancy (5). Chronic use of amphetamines has been associated with an increased risk of miscarriage. The illicit use of ecstasy (methylenedioxymethamphetamine, MDMA) has increased over the past decade and there is growing concern about its potential neurotoxicity. The age group of users means that exposure in early pregnancy is likely but few data exist on fetotoxicity (6,8,9). NTIS has collected prospective follow up data on the outcome of 201 ecstasy exposed pregnancies in the UK. The data indicate that ecstasy may be associated with a two-fold increased risk of malformations. CNS, cardiovascular and musculoskeletal anomalies were predominant (9). In general, prematurity, meconium stained fluids, IUGR, reduced birth weight and head circumference and neonatal death are common in infants born to drug misusers. There are conflicting reports on whether there is a higher risk of SIDS possibly related to abnormal sleep patterns and impaired hypoxia arousal. A high proportion of babies have neonatal withdrawal symptoms (tremor, hypertonicity, irritability, diarrhoea, vomiting, abnormal sleep patterns and altered visual responses) which may last up to several weeks occur. Data are limited and inconsistent on the possible adverse effects of illicit drugs on postnatal development. Conclusion: Maternal exposure to drugs of abuse has been associated with fetal and neonatal toxicity, but not specifically with congenital malformations. In most cases it is not clear whether the toxicity is drug related or due to deficits in socio-economic lifestyle. Evidence concerning fetotoxicity from paternal exposure is lacking. Drug-dependent mothers and their babies, ‘the hidden users’ represent a unique group that requires further investigation, especially as regards long-term postnatal development. References: 1. McElhatton P. The effects of drug misuse in pregnancy. In: Children exposed to substance misuse – Implications for family placement. Ed. Rena Philips. BAAF publication 2004, pp 43-72. 2. ONS Report: Tobacco, alcohol and drug use and mental health. HMSO (2002). 3. Home office on-line report 33/03. 2003. 4. National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA). Info facts. US Department of Health. March 2004. 5. DrugScope. FAQs http://www.drugscope.org.uk/druginfo/drugsearch December 2004. 6. Bateman DN, McElhatton PR, Dickinson D, et al. A case control study to examine the pharmacological factors underlying ventricular septal defects in the North of England. EJCP 2004; 60(9): 635-641. 7. Turning Point, Alcohol and Drugs Centre. Victoria, Australia. December 2003. 8. McElhatton PR, Bateman DN, Evans C, KR Pughe, Thomas SHL. Congenital anomalies after pre-natal ecstasy exposure. Lancet 1999; 354: 1441-1442. 9. McElhatton P, Hedgley C, Thomas S. Congenital anomalies after prenatal ecstasy exposure. BJCP 2005; in press
Soyka, M., Koch, W., Möller, H. J., Rüther, T., & Tatsch, K. (2005). Hypermetabolic pattern in frontal cortex and other brain regions in unmedicated schizophrenia patients: Results from a FDG-PET study. European Archives Of Psychiatry And Clinical Neuroscience
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s00406-005-0563-0
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“We report results of a FDG-PET study in 10 patients with schizophrenia (6 unmedicated, 4 never medicated) and 12 healthy age-matched controls. The patients met ICD-10 and DSM-IV criteria for schizophrenia and all reported psychotic, “positive” symptoms when tested. Schizophrenic patients had higher absolute CMRGlu values in almost all quantified regions compared to normal subjects. Using the occipital cortex as the reference region patients showed a hyperfrontal metabolic pattern. Other significant regional differences were found with respect to thalamus, striatum and temporal cortex. The finding of a hyperfrontality in un- and never medicated psychotic schizophrenic patients must be discussed in the light of the psychopathological symptoms of patients when tested, a possible disruption of cortico-striato-thalamic feedback loops and recent findings of a hyperfrontality in experimentally induced psychosis (ketamine- and psilocybin-model of schizophrenia).
Sessa, B. (2005). Can psychedelics have a role in psychiatry once again?. British Journal Of Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1192/bjp.186.6.457
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“Psychedelic or hallucinogenic drugs such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), 3,4,5-trimethoxy-β-phenethylamine (mescaline), psilocybin, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and their relations occur in abundance throughout the natural world, and have been used by humankind for thousands of years. In some cultures they are important tools for spiritual experiences, whereas in others they are labelled as dangerous drugs of misuse. What is less well known about these substances is the role they played in psychiatry for a brief historical interval. This article offers a short overview of this period and questions whether interest in these compounds might be emerging again.
Anastos, N., Barnett, N. W., Lewis, S. W., Gathergood, N., Scammells, P. J., & Sims, D. N. (2005). Determination of psilocin and psilocybin using flow injection analysis with acidic potassium permanganate and tris(2,2′-bipyridyl)ruthenium(II) chemiluminescence detection respectively. Talanta
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2004.11.038
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“A simple, rapid and sensitive method for the determination of psilocin and psilocybin is described. This is the first report on the determination of psilocin and psilocybin using flow injection analysis with acidic potassium permanganate and tris(2,2′-bipyridyl)ruthenium(II) chemiluminescence. The limits of detection (signal-to-noise ratio = 3) are 9 × 10-10M and 3 × 10-10M for psilocin and psilocybin, respectively. A concise synthetic route for psilocin in three steps from readily available starting materials is also described. The structures were elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic data. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Zhu, M., Wu, X., Wallace, J., & Furby, S. (2005). Vegetation Trends 1990-2005: South West Agricultural Region of Western Australia. Land Monitor II Project
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.07.016
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“Serotonergic hallucinogens, such as (+)-lysergic acid diethylamide, psilocybin, and mescaline, are somewhat enigmatic substances. Although these drugs are derived from multiple chemical families, they all produce remarkably similar effects in animals and humans, and they show cross-tolerance. This article reviews the evidence demonstrating the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor is the primary site of hallucinogen action. The 5-HT2A receptor is responsible for mediating the effects of hallucinogens in human subjects, as well as in animal behavioral paradigms such as drug discrimination, head twitch response, prepulse inhibition of startle, exploratory behavior, and interval timing. Many recent clinical trials have yielded important new findings regarding the psychopharmacology of these substances. Furthermore, the use of modern imaging and electrophysiological techniques is beginning to help unravel how hallucinogens work in the brain. Evidence is also emerging that hallucinogens may possess therapeutic efficacy.
Carter, O. L., Burr, D. C., Pettigrew, J. D., Wallis, G. M., Hasler, F., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2005). Using psilocybin to investigate the relationship between attention, working memory, and the serotonin 1A and 2A receptors. Journal Of Cognitive Neuroscience
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1162/089892905774597191
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“Increasing evidence suggests a link between attention, working memory, serotonin (5-HT), and prefrontal cortex activity. In an attempt to tease out the relationship between these elements, this study tested the effects of the hallucinogenic mixed 5-HT1A/2A receptor agonist psilocybin alone and after pretreatment with the 5-HT2A antagonist ketanserin. Eight healthy human volunteers were tested on a multiple-object tracking task and spatial working memory task under the four conditions: placebo, psilocybin (215 microg/kg), ketanserin (50 mg), and psilocybin and ketanserin. Psilocybin significantly reduced attentional tracking ability, but had no significant effect on spatial working memory, suggesting a functional dissociation between the two tasks. Pretreatment with ketanserin did not attenuate the effect of psilocybin on attentional performance, suggesting a primary involvement of the 5-HT1A receptor in the observed deficit. Based on physiological and pharmacological data, we speculate that this impaired attentional performance may reflect a reduced ability to suppress or ignore distracting stimuli rather than reduced attentional capacity. The clinical relevance of these results is also discussed.
2004
Bas, M., & Yurttagul, M. (2004). Mushroom toxins and mushroom poisoning. Sendrom
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“Mushroom poisoning is caused by the consumption of raw or cooked mushrooms. Mushroom toxins are generally evaluated in eight categories. These toxins are known as amatoxins, hydrazines, orellanine, ibotenic acid, muscimol, muscarine, psilocybin and coprine. The main symptoms are varied according to the toxins and categorized in five types. These symptoms are related to protoplasmic poisonings (symptoms such as; severe seizures of abdominal pain, persistent vomiting and watery diarrhea, extreme thirst, and lack of urine production occuring acutely at the end of the latent period), neurotoxins (depression, constipation, passion, hallucination, coma and sweating), gastrointestinal irritants (vomiting and/or diarrhea for a few days), disulfiram-like poisoning (a complicating factor in this type of intoxication is that this causative species is generally considered edible. No adverse effects occur unless ingested with alcoholic beverages) and miscellaneous poisonings (digestive upsets in adults and visual hallucinations and ataxia in children). Mushroom poisonings are generally acute and progressive. All humans are susceptible to mushroom toxins. Children are more sensitive towards toxins than adults and more likely suffer from ingestion of low doses. It is predicted that approximately 100 mushroom poisoning cases annually occur in Turkey.
Clancy, C. M., Slutsky, J. R., & Patton, L. T. (2004). Evidence-based health care 2004: AHRQ moves research to translation and implementation. Health Services Research
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2004.00286.x
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“Background:Recent pilot trials suggest feasibility and potential efficacy of psychedelic-facilitated addiction treatment interventions. Fifteen participants completed a psilocybin-facilitated smoking cessation pilot study between 2009 and 2015.Aims:The aims of this study were as follows: (1) to identify perceived mechanisms of change leading to smoking cessation in the pilot study; (2) to identify key themes in participant experiences and long-term outcomes to better understand the therapeutic process.Methods:Participants were invited to a retrospective follow-up interview an average of 30 months after initial psilocybin sessions. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 of the 15 participants. Data were analysed using thematic analysis.Results:Participants reported gaining vivid insights into self-identity and reasons for smoking from their psilocybin sessions. Experiences of interconnectedness, awe, and curiosity persisted beyond the duration of acute drug effects. Participants emphasised that ..
Doyle, B. B. (2004). Reducing Harm and Enhancing Benefit : A Report on MAPS at Burning Man 2004. Reducing Harm And Enhancing Benefit: A Report On Maps At Burning Man 2004 Burning Man Is A Fantastic Place To Create A Vision For The Future
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“Every once in a while, we take a break from seeking government approvals and conducting research to actually envision and enact a little piece of the world we hope to create. Last year MAPS returned to the Burning Man Festival to build on the psychedelic emergency services we offered in 2003. Burning Man is a fantastic place to create a vision for the future; it’s a surreal landscape of art projects, interactive performances, and high tech music and light. More importantly, it’s a dynamic community focused on self-reliance and building relationships outside the bounds of commercialism. Again working with the Black Rock Rangers, the khaki-clad volunteers who patrol Black Rock City, we brought an amazing team of psychedelic therapists and peer volunteers. Returning from last year were MAPS president Rick Doblin, MAPS-funded Harvard psychiatrist John Halpern, ” Sam, ” a highly skilled underground psychedelic therapist, trauma therapist Kate Sorenson, and myself. Joining us this year were MAPS staffer Valerie Mojeiko, MDMA/PTSD study investigators Dr. Stammer, the former follow-up coordinator for the Ibogaine Association clinic in Mexico. We worked shifts alongside the Rangers, many of whom were also trauma counselors, psychiatric nurses, and other professionals, in their chill-out space, Sanctuary. Throughout the week-long festival, visitors included flustered Burning Man staff, dehydrated participants, feuding campmates, and a number of folks having difficult psychedelic experiences. This group included people on LSD, MDMA, psilocybin, and various combinations. We tried to provide a safe space for those in difficult psychedelic states, giving them a quiet place and caring company. Depending on their needs, we spoke with them about their experience, helped them find their friends, or let them rest. Many of those in psychedelic states were simply anxious, as was the case of a young woman on LSD and MDMA, who spent several hours in our tent in the company of her boyfriend. Once in a safe space, she was able open up to her experience and found it valuable rather than distressing. Others were more overwhelmed; Annie Mithoefer spent hours holding a young woman and helping her feel safe.
Hasler, F., Grimberg, U., Benz, M. A., Huber, T., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2004). Acute psychological and physiological affects of psilocybin in healthy humans: A double-blind, placebo-controlled dose-effect study. Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s00213-003-1640-6
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“RATIONALE: Serotonin (5-Hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) receptors play an important role in perception, affect regulation and attention. Pharmacological challenge with the 5-HT(2A) agonist psilocybin (PY) is useful in studying the neurobiological basis of cognition and consciousness. OBJECTIVE: Investigation of dose-dependent effects of PY on psycho(patho)logical and physiological parameters. METHODS: Eight subjects received placebo (PL), and 45 (“very low dose, VLD”), 115 (“low dose, LD”), 215 (“medium dose, MD”), and 315 (“high dose, HD”) microg/kg body weight PY. The “Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale” (5D-ASC), the “Frankfurt Attention Inventory” (FAIR), and the “Adjective Mood Rating Scale” (AMRS) were used to assess the effects of PY on psycho(patho)logical core dimensions, attention, and mood. A 24-h electrocardiogram (EKG) was recorded and blood pressure was measured. Plasma concentrations of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), prolactin (PRL), cortisol (CORT), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), and standard clinical chemical parameters were determined. RESULTS: PY dose dependently increased scores of all 5D-ASC core dimensions. Only one subject reacted with transient anxiety to HD PY. Compared with PL, MD and HD PY led to a 50% reduction of performance in the FAIR test. “General inactivation”, “emotional excitability”, and “dreaminess” were the only domains of the AMRS showing increased scores following MD and HD PY. The mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) was moderately elevated only 60 min following administration of HD PY. Neither EKG nor body temperature was affected by any dose of PY. TSH, ACTH, and CORT plasma levels were elevated during peak effects of HD PY, whereas PRL plasma levels were increased following MD and HD PY. CONCLUSION: PY affects core dimensions of altered states of consciousness and physiological parameters in a dose-dependent manner. Our study provided no cause for concern that PY is hazardous with respect to somatic health.
Carter, O. L., Pettigrew, J. D., Burr, D. C., Alais, D., Hasler, F., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2004). Psilocybin impairs high-level but not low-level motion perception. Neuroreport
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1097/00001756-200408260-00023
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“The hallucinogenic serotonin(1A&2A) agonist psilocybin is known for its ability to induce illusions of motion in otherwise stationary objects or textured surfaces. This study investigated the effect of psilocybin on local and global motion processing in nine human volunteers. Using a forced choice direction of motion discrimination task we show that psilocybin selectively impairs coherence sensitivity for random dot patterns, likely mediated by high-level global motion detectors, but not contrast sensitivity for drifting gratings, believed to be mediated by low-level detectors. These results are in line with those observed within schizophrenic populations and are discussed in respect to the proposition that psilocybin may provide a model to investigate clinical psychosis and the pharmacological underpinnings of visual perception in normal populations.
2003
Seiwert, S. (2003). Detection of abused substances and their analogs or metabolites using nucleic acid sensor molecules. U.S. Pat. Appl. Publ.
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“Nucleic acid sensor mols. (e.g., allosteric ribozymes, allosteric DNAzymes) and methods are provided for the detection and quantitation of small mols., including drugs, drug analogs, and drug metabolites, for example recreational drugs, mood-altering drugs, and performance enhancing drugs such as 4-MTA (4-methylthioamphetamine), α-ethyltryptamine, amphetamine, amyl nitrite, benzocaine, cocaine, dimethyltryptamine, Ecstasy (MDA, MDMA, MDEA), ephedrine, erythropoietin (Epogen), fentanyl, Gamma Hydroxybutyrate (GHB), GBL (Gamma butyrolactone), GHB (Gamma Hydroxybutyrate), Hashish, heroin, iso-Bu nitrite, ketamine, lidocaine, LSD (Lysergic acid diethylamide), mannitol, marijuana (THC), mescaline, methadone, methamphetamine, methaqualone, methcathinone, methylphenidate (ritalin), morphine, Nexus (2CB), nicotine, Opium, oxycodone, oxyContin, PCP (phencyclidine), Peyote, phenobarbital, procaine, psilocybin, psilocybin/psilocin, pseudoephedrine, Rohypnol, scopolamine, steroids, strychnine, and Talwin. Also provided are kits for detection. The nucleic acid sensor mols., methods and kits provided herein can be used in diagnostic applications for detecting drugs, analogs, and metabolites thereof. [on SciFinder(R)]
Carod Artal, F. J. (2003). Neurological syndromes associated with the ingestion of plants and fungi with a toxic component (II). Hallucinogenic fungi and plants, mycotoxins and medicinal herbs. Revista De Neurologia
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“A wide range of fungi and medicinal herbs, rich in hallucinogenic substances and widely used for mystic and medicinal purposes, can give rise to neurotoxic symptoms.We review the toxic syndromes that can arise from the ingestion of hallucinogenic fungi, cacti and plants, together with descriptions of cases of acute poisoning resulting from the use of medicinal herbs and from foodstuffs that are contaminated by mycotoxins. A series of different psychedelic fungi belonging to the Psilocybe, Panaeolus and Stropharia genera contain hallucinogenic alkaloids such as psilocybin. Some of the most notable plants displaying hallucinogenic and sedative properties are Papaver somniferum, Erytroxylum sp. and Cannabis sativa. Infusions of ayahuasca are obtained from the lianas and roots of different plants with psychoactive properties, such as Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis, which contain alkaloids derived from tryptamine and from the beta carboline harmala. Peyote, a cactus rich in mescaline, and Claviceps purpurea (a fungus rich in LSD) are strong hallucinogens. We also examine ergotism and mycotoxicosis from Arthrinium sp. Poisoning from mycotoxin containing moulds on sugar cane can give rise to encephalopathy and late dystonia. Some of the more noteworthy medicinal plants for which neurological toxicity has been reported are Hypericum perforatum, kava kava (Piper methysticum), Aconitum sp. and Callilepis laureola. Because of the increasingly more widespread consumption of herbs and fungi and their potentially neurotoxic effects, in clinical practice there is a need to be aware of the neurological syndromes deriving from their use.
Maruyama, T., Shirota, O., Kawahara, N., Yokoyama, K., Makino, Y., & Goda, Y. (2003). [Discrimination of psychoactive fungi (commonly called “magic mushrooms”) based on the DNA sequence of the internal transcribed spacer region]. Shokuhin Eiseigaku Zasshi. Journal Of The Food Hygienic Society Of Japan
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3358/shokueishi.44.44
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“’Magic mushrooms’ (MMs) are psychoactive fungi containing the hallucinogenic compounds, psilocin (1) and psilocybin (2). Since June 6, 2002, these fungi have been regulated by the Narcotics and Psychotropics Control Law in Japan. Because there are many kinds of MMs and they are sold even as dry powders in local markets, it is very difficult to identify the original species of the MMs by morphological observation. Therefore, we investigated the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region in the ribosomal RNA gene of MMs obtained in Japanese markets to classify them by a genetic approach. Based on the size and nucleotide sequence of the ITS region amplified by PCR, tested MMs were classified into 6 groups. Furthermore, a comparison of the DNA sequences of the MMs with those of authentic samples or with those found in the databases (GenBank, EMBL and DDBJ) made it possible to identify the species of tested MMs. Analysis by LC revealed that psilocin (1) was contained at the highest level in Panaeolus cyanescens among the MMs, but was absent in the Amanita species.
Wiercinska-Drapalo, A., & Prokopowicz, D. (2003). Hallucinogenic mushrooms – medical and veterinary aspects. Medycyna Weterynaryjna
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“Hallucinogenic mushrooms have been part of human culture as far back as the earliest recorded history. The primary active ingredients of Psilocybe mushrooms are psilocybin and psilocin, and, to a lesser extent, baeocystin and norbaeocystin. The ratio of psilocybin to psilocin varies from species to species. The effects of hallucinogenic mushrooms are primarily on the seritonergic systems of the brain, and are similar to the activities of mescaline or LSD. Sensory effects are common, particularly the intensification of color perception, and “kaleidoscope effects” with eyes closed. The global increase of interest in obtaining hallucinogenic mushrooms is also noticeable in Poland. There has been a remarkable expansion of the market for these mushrooms in our country and they are as popular as other “street drugs”.
de Haro, L., Tichadou, L., Pommier, P., Hayek-Lanthois, M., Arditti, J., & Valli, M. (2003). Description of the 2002 season of mushroom poisonings in the poison centre of Marseilles . Journal Of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology
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“Objective: Mushroom poisonings are observed every year during a short period (one or two months) which usually begins at the summer end. As mushrooms have an important role in the French cuisine, the first cases of intoxication happen as soon as the September rains induce the fungi development. Every 4 years, a special prospective study is performed in the “Toxicovigilance” unit of the Poison Centre of Marseilles in order to evaluate the importance of mushroom poisonings in South Eastern France. Case series: The 2002 mushroom season was unusually long because the rain began to fall the first week of August and the cold winter wind was not present until the middle of November (study period 01/08/02 to 15/11/02). 116 observations of gastrointestinal syndrome concerning 195 patients were collected (average delay of 3 hours between ingestion and symptoms, vomiting for 75% of the patients, abdominal pain 30%, diarrhoea 27%. Main implicated species: Boletus satanas and Clitocybe olearia). The second frequent kind was the Muscarine syndrome with 27 observations and 34 patients (shorter delay for the onset of symptoms, with an average value of 1H30. Main symptoms: perspiration for 94% of the patients, vomiting 53%, aqueous diarrhoea 50%, hypersalivation 24%, myosis 18%, bradycardia 12%. Main implicated genus Inocybe). The other syndromes were less frequent, but more severe: 2 cases of Psilocybin syndrome with the death of a 17 years old patient who ingested a specimen of Copelandia cyanescens and who jumped through the window thinking he was able to fly; 2 cases of Phalloides syndrome including one collective poisoning with 4 adults who presented severe hepatic cytolysis after ingestion of unidentified Amanita species; 4 cases of behaviour disturbances during Pantherina syndromes; 1 case of renal insufficiency during a Proxima syndrome after ingestion of Amanita proxima. For several observations, the clinical features did not correspond to classical descriptions, and the responsible species was not identified: 3 cases of myalgias with creatine kinase blood level elevation, 3 cases of severe and initial hematemesis 3 hours after a mushroom meal, and 3 cases of elevated fever without infectious origin during a gastrointestinal syndrome. Conclusion: Mushroom poisonings are frequent in the fall and represent an important part of the French Poison Centre activity during the short concerned period. Once again the origin of the poisonings was the ignorance of the population: the patients were not able to identify what they ate and were really irresponsible
Shirota, O., Hakamata, W., & Goda, Y. (2003). Concise Large-Scale Synthesis of Psilocin and Psilocybin, Principal Hallucinogenic Constituents of “Magic Mushroom”. Journal Of Natural Products
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1021/np030059u
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“The concise large-scale syntheses of psilocin (1) and psilocybin (2), the principal hallucinogenic constituents of “magic mushroom”, were achieved without chromatographic purification. The key step in the synthesis of 2 was the isolation of the dibenzyl-protected intermediate (7) as a zwitterionic derivative (8), which was completely identified by means of 2D NMR analyses.
Stríbrný, J., Borovicka, J., & Sokol, M. (2003). [Levels of psilocybin and psilocin in various types of mushrooms]. Soudní Lékarství / Casopis Sekce Soudního Lékarstvi Cs. Lékarské Spolecnosti J. Ev. Purkyne
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“Psilocin and psilocybin are psychoactive components of mushrooms of the genus Psilocybe and many others (Panaeolus, Inocybe, Pluteus etc.). In our republic, several species of Psilocybe with a high content of these components can be found. In the present study, we give a semiquantitative content of psilocin and psilocybin in some of our mushrooms in dry substance (Psilocybe semilanceata, Psilocybe bohemica, Psilocybe arcana, Psilocybe cyanescens, Panaeolus acuminatus sensu Ricken, Inocybe haemacta and Pluteus salicinus). For quantification, the GC/MS instrumentation was applied. Psilocin and psilocybin were silylated by the derivatization agent N-methyl-N-trimet-hylsilyltrifluoroacetamide. As an internal standard, 5-methoxytryptamin was used. The results of this study prove the presence of at least three species of Psilocybe with a high content of psychoactive components growing in our republic: Psilocybe semilanceata, Psilocybe bohemica and Psilocybe arcana.
Saviuc, P., & Flesch, F. (2003). Acute higher funghi mushroom poisoning and its treatment. La Presse Medicale
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“PRINCIPLE: The various mushroom poisoning syndromes are summarised together with elements underlining uncertainty and lack of knowledge. For each of the classical syndromes concerned, classified in delays inferior or superior to 6 hours, the toxins and their mechanisms of action, the main mushrooms responsible, the symptoms and their treatment are all presented. EARLY SYNDROMES: Characterised by early onset within 6 hours, these represent the majority of intoxications. There are 6 syndromes: gastro-intestinal (resinoid), muscarine (sudorien, cholinergic), pantherine (myco-atropine, anticholinergic), coprine (similar to the antabuse syndrome), narcotine (psilocybin, hallucinatory) and paxillus syndrome (exceptional). LATE SYNDROMES: Characterised by an onset after six hours, they regroup the phalloid syndrome that is responsible for 90 to 95% of deaths due to higher funghi mushrooms, the orellanine and gyromitrin syndrome and new syndromes identified over the past decade concerning acute renal failure with shorter onset than during the orellanine syndrome (Amanita proxima), erythermalgia (Clitocybe amoenolens), rhabdomyolysis (Tricholoma equestre) and central nervous system failure (Hapalopilus rutilans).
Fantegrossi, W. E. (2003). Behavioral and pharmacological characterization of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, its enantiomers, and related compounds. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences And Engineering
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“3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is a widespread drug of abuse worldwide, and has been argued to represent a new pharmacological class, known as the entactogens, that is distinct from both the psychomotor stimulants and the traditional hallucinogens. Racemic MDMA and its stereoisomers maintained contingent responding in rhesus monkeys, but did so less effectively than both cocaine and methamphetamme. MDMA-maintained behavior, was suppressed by 5-HT2 antagonists at doses that did not alter responding for cocaine. Racemic 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) and its S(+) enantiomer were also effective reinforcers in rhesus monkeys, but R(-)-MDA and racemic N-methyl-1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-2-butanamine (MBDB) had only transient reinforcing effects in some animals, similar to those observed with the indolealkylamine hallucinogens N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and psilocybin as well as the phenylisopropylamine hallucinogen mescaline. Responding for MDMA and its enantiomers gradually decreased over a period of approximately 18 months of intermittent access, although response rates for contingent cocaine were unaltered. Quantification of vesicular monoamine transporters (VMAT) via positron emission tomography (PET) using [ 11C]dihydrotetrabenazine (DTBZ) did not uncover any differences between monkeys with a history of MDMA self-administration and their controls. However, determination of levels of brain monoamines and their major metabolites using reverse phase high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) revealed depletions of serotonin (5-HT) and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) throughout the brain, and more profound depletions of dopamine (DA) and dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) in several discrete brain regions. MDMA and its enantiomers produced aggregate toxicity in mice. This effect was attenuated by ketanserin, MDL100907, the serotonin selective reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine, and by lowering of the ambient temperature, although there was significant stereoselectivity in all cases. Racemic and S(+)-MDMA dose-dependently induced hyperthermia at sublethal doses, but R(-)-MDMA did not increase core temperature at any dose. All forms of MDMA produced locomotor stimulation: racemic MDMA was more effective than S(+)-MDMA, and R(-)-MDMA was least effective. Pretreatments of ketanserin, MDL10097, or fluoxetine attenuated both the hyperthermic and locomotor stimulant effects of racemic MDMA, had no effect of S(+)-MDMA-induced hyperthermia, and potentiated the locomotor stimulant effects of S(+)-MDMA. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
Saviuc, P., & Flesch, F. (2003). Intoxications aigues par les champignons superieurs et leur traitement. Presse Medicale
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“Principle: The various mushroom poisoning syndromes are summarised together with elements underlining uncertainty and lack of knowledge. For each of the classical syndromes concerned, classified in delays inferior or superior to 6 hours, the toxins and their mechanisms of action, the main mushrooms responsible, the symptoms and their treatment are all presented. Early syndromes: Characterised by early onset within 6 hours, these represent the majority of intoxications. There are 6 syndromes: gastro-intestinal (resinoid), muscarine (sudorien, cholinergic), pantherine (myco-atropine, anticholinergic), coprine (similar to the Antabuse syndrome), narcotine (psilocybin, hallucinatory) and paxillus syndrome (exceptional). Late syndromes: Characterised by an onset after six hours, they regroup the phalloid syndrome that is responsible for 90 to 95% of deaths due to higher fungi mushrooms, the orellanine and gyromitrin syndrome and new syndromes identified over the past decade concerning acute renal failure with shorter onset than during the orellanine syndrome (Amanita proxima), erythemalgia (Clitocybe amoenolens), rhabdomyolysis (Tricholoma equestre) and central nervous system failure (Hapalopilus rutilans). (c) 2003, Masson, Paris
Tsujikawa, K., Kanamori, T., Iwata, Y., Ohmae, Y., Sugita, R., Inoue, H., & Kishi, T. (2003). Morphological and chemical analysis of magic mushrooms in Japan. Forensic Science International
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2003.08.009
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“Morphological and toxicological analyses were performed on hallucinogenic mushrooms that are currently circulated in Japan. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) indicated a three-dimensional microstructures in the mushrooms. The complementary use of SEM with an optical microscope was effective for observing characteristic tissues, such as basidiomycetes, spores, cystidia and basidia. Hallucinogenic alkaloids were extracted with methanol and determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a UV detector set at 220nm. The psilocin/psilocybin contents in Psilocybe cubensis were in the range of 0.14-0.42%/0.37-1.30% in the whole mushroom (0.17-0.78%/0.44-1.35% in the cap and 0.09-0.30%/0.05-1.27% in the stem), respectively. The hallucinogenic alkaloids in Copelandia were 0.43-0.76%/0.08-0.22% in the whole mushroom (0.64-0.74%/0.02-0.22% in the cap and 0.31-0.78%/0.01-0.39% in the stem). It thus appears that P. cubensis is psilocybin-rich, whereas Copelandia is psilocin-rich. © 2003 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
2002
Passie, T., Seifert, J., Schneider, U., & Emrich, H. M. (2002). The pharmacology of psilocybin. Addiction Biology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/1355621021000005937
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“Psilocybin (4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) is the major psychoactive alkaloid of some species of mushrooms distributed worldwide. These mushrooms represent a growing problem regarding hallucinogenic drug abuse. Despite its experimental medical use in the 1960s, only very few pharmacological data about psilocybin were known until recently. Because of its still growing capacity for abuse and the widely dispersed data this review presents all the available pharmacological data about psilocybin.
Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E., Thelen, B., Maier, S., Heekeren, K., Kovar, K. A., Sass, H., & Spitzer, M. (2002). Effects of the hallucinogen psilocybin on covert orienting of visual attention in humans. Neuropsychobiology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1159/000063672
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“Hallucinogenic drug-induced states are considered as models for acute schizophrenic disorders (experimental psychoses). In a double-blind study with healthy volunteers we investigated the influence of the serotonergic hallucinogen psilocybin, the ecstasy-like drug 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDE), the stimulant d- methamphetamine and placebo on covert orienting of spatial attention (n = 8 in each group). Reaction times were prolonged after ingestion of psilocybin > MDE, but not after d-methamphetamine. In addition, subjects on psilocybin exhibited particularly slow reaction times in invalid trials at short cue target intervals and failure of response inhibition in valid trials at long cue target intervals for right visual field targets. Despite some methodological limitations, these results are in line with both bilateral impairment of disengagement of attention and a lateralized impairment of inhibition of return (IOR) in productive psychotic states. Additional investigations with larger samples, different hallucinogenic substances (serotonergic agonists vs. NMDA antagonists) and different dose regimens are needed in order to further explore the suggested relationship between visuospatial attentional dysfunction and acute psychotic conditions.
Bottalico, A., & Perrone, G. (2002). Mycotoxins of poisonous macromycetes. Micotossine Dei Macromiceti Velenosi.
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“The heating and handling of poisonous mushrooms can elicit several syndromes characterized by a long or short latency period. Mycotoxins associated with long latency syndromes include: hepatotoxic cyclopeptides of Amanita species; hepatotoxic gyromitrin of Gyromitra species; nephrotoxic orellanine of Cortinarius species; and the emolytic agent of Paxillus species. Mycotoxins associated with short latency syndromes include: psychotoxigenic isoxazoles of Amanita species; muscarine of species of Clitocybe, Inocybe and Amanita; the hallucinogenic psilocybin of species of Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Gymnopilus, Inocybe and Pluteus; coprine of Coprinus species; and other toxic metabolites of species of Boletus, Clitocybe, Entoloma, Hebeloma, Hypholoma, Lactarius, Ramaria, Russula, Scleroderma and Tricholoma, causing gastrointestinal disorders.
Scheidegger, C., Groner, U., Keller, C., Stofer, S., Bergamini, A., Waser, L., et al. (2002). Biodiversity Assessment Tools – Lichens. Monitoring with Lichens – Monitoring Lichens
https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00237
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“In the past decade, an increasing number of clinical trials are reporting evidence that psychedelics or serotonergic hallucinogens (such as lysergic acid diethylamide, psilocybin, and ayahuasca/dimethyltryptamine) could be effective in the treatment of mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders. The mechanisms responsible for these effects are not fully understood but seem to involve changes in bran dynamics in areas rich in serotonergic 5-HT 2A receptors and in personality. In the present text, we present a brief and critical overview of the current research in this field, pointing out both promises and limitations of these studies. P sychedelicsderived from the Greek words psyche (“mind”) and delein (“to manifest”), thus “mind manifesting”)or serotonergic hallucinogens are a group of psychoactive drugs that profoundly alter perceptions, cognitive processes, and consciousness by their agonism action on cortical 5-HT 2A serotonergic receptors. 1 These drugssuch as mescaline, psilocybin, and dimethyltryptamine (DMT)have been used since immemorial times by several ethnic groups worldwide for ritual and therapeutic purposes, but they became widely known in Western cultures with the discovery of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) by Dr. Albert Hofmann in 1943. In the following decades, psychedelics became important tools for psychiatry and psychotherapy, as well as new recreational, introspective, and spiritual search drugs used by the counter-culture and the New Age subcultures. Unfortunately, the recreational use of these drugs, the counterculture associated with this use, and other cultural factors resulted in the restriction of human research of these compounds for the next 25 years. 2 Although several experimental and clinical studies were performed with these compounds in that time, most studies had important methodological limitations, such as lack of placebo or control groups. 2 However, after more than 20 years of silence, recent studies with better methodologies are being performed again with these drugs both in healthy volunteers and in clinical populations, as well as in basic pharmacology, psychotherapy, epidemiology, and public health, and the psychological, biological, and social bases of personality. 1−3 Traditionally used psychiatric medications, mostly antide-pressants, antipsychotics, and anxiolytic drugs, have limited efficacy for a significant proportion of patients, and they are also associated with significant adverse reactions. Moreover, they are taken daily for long periods, often years, and many patients are treatment-resistant, in many cases taking several medications at the same time. Thus, better treatments, with increased efficacy and less side effects, should be investigated. Indeed, this scenario provoked a new wave of research into new pharmacological agents that can prove helpful in easing the suffering of psychiatric patients without intoxicating them, and that can promote healing to treatment-resistant disorders. In the last 25 years, we have been witnesses of an increasing number of clinical trials researching the therapeutic potential of psychedelic substances have been performed. 2 For instance, a recent systematic review of clinical trials with LSD and psilocybin (from so-called “magic mushrooms”) for the treatment of anxiety and depression in patients with life-threatening diseases showed that, from 1960 to 2017, 11 studies with a total number of 445 participants were published, with promising results. 4 Four of the 11 studies were randomized controlled trials (RCTs) recently performed, most showing that psychedelic drugs significantly reduced symptoms of depression and anxiety, increased quality of life, and reduced fear of death. Moreover, these studies often used only a single dose of the compounds and reported with few side effects. Therefore, these drugs are promising candidates to be future treatments for this clinical population. Moreover, recent studies (mostly open-label) also reported that psilocybin was effective in reducing drug-related problems associated with tobacco and alcohol dependence, and significantly reduced symptoms of obsessive− compulsive disorder. 2 There is also evidence that ayahuasca (a plant decoction from the Amazon that contains beta-carbolines and dimethyl
Fukuda, K. (2002). Possible mechanisms of panic attack and schizophrenia via APUD system. Medical Hypotheses
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1054/mehy.2001.1473
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“Psilocybin poisoning produces biphasic reactions composed of a schizophrenic phase and a panic attack-like phase. There is a time lag of several hours between phases, which may be considered an accumulation time in certain sites between the gut and the brain. So far as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) congeners are concerned, no sites are to be found except the amine precursor uptake and decarboxylation (APUD) system. It is postulated that argyrophil cells (AC) in the foregut, neuroepithelial bodies (NEB) in the lung, and raphe nuclei (RN) in the brainstem axis are relevant to mental disorders. Schizophrenia might be due to the massive destruction of APUD cells, and the paroxysmal release of 5-HT with peptides and panneuroendocrine markers from NEB might be the cause of panic attack. © 2002 Harcourt Publishers Ltd.
Gross, S. T. (2002). Psychotropic drugs in developmental mushrooms: a case study review. J Forensic Sci
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“Psilocyn and psilocybin can be identified in different stages of developing psilocybe mushrooms. Knowing the various stages of the mushroom development can be useful when receiving evidence from illicit mushroom growing operations. Exhibits from three separate cases were submitted to the drug analysis section of the Minnesota Bureau of Criminal Apprehension Forensic Science Laboratory. Each case contained different stages of developing mushrooms. This report describes the evidence in each case, the sample preparation, the sample analysis and the final report that was written.
Moeller, M. R., & Kraemer, T. (2002). Drugs of abuse monitoring in blood for control of driving under the influence of drugs. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1097/00007691-200204000-00003
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“Driving under the influence of drugs is an issue of growing concern in the industrialized countries as a risk and a cause for road accidents. In forensic toxicology, the increasing number of samples for determination of drugs in blood is mainly due to zero-tolerance laws in several countries and well-trained police officers who can better recognize drivers under the influence of drugs of abuse. This review describes procedures for detection of the following drugs of abuse in whole blood, plasma, and serum: amphetamine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxy methamphetamine (MDMA), N-ethyl-3, 4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDEA), 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), cannabinoids (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol [THC], 11-hydroxy-delta-9-THC, 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta-9-THC), cocaine, benzoylecgonine, ecgonine methyl ester, cocaethylene, the opiates (heroin, 6-monoacetylmorphine, morphine, or codeine), and methadone as well as gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), phencyclidine (PCP), and psilocybin/psilocin. For many of the analytes, sensitive immunologic methods for screening are available. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is still the state-of-the-art method for confirmatory analysis or for screening and confirmation in one step. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) procedures for such purposes are also included in this review. Basic data about the biosample assayed, internal standard, workup, GC or LC column and mobile phase, detection mode, reference data, and validation data of each procedure are summarized in two tables.
Rabin, R. A., Regina, M., Doat, M., & Winter, J. C. (2002). 5-HT2Areceptor-stimulated phosphoinositide hydrolysis in the stimulus effects of hallucinogens. Pharmacology Biochemistry And Behavior
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0091-3057(01)00720-1
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“The role of 5-HT2A-mediated stimulation of phosphoinositide hydrolysis in the discriminative effects of hallucinogens was investigated in PC12 cells stably expressing the rat 5-HT2Areceptor (PC12-5-HT2Acells). The hallucinogenic compounds, D-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), (-)2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine (DOM), psilocybin, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (MDMT) and N,N-diethyltryptamine (DET), all caused a concentration-dependent increase in the generation of [3H]inositol phosphates. The nonhallucinogenic compounds, 6-fluoro-N,N-diethyltryptamine (6-F-DET), lisuride and quipazine, also displayed significant efficacy in stimulating phosphoinositide hydrolysis, while 2-bromo-lysergic acid diethylamide (BOL), which is not a hallucinogen, did not alter inositol phosphate generation. The β-carbolines, harmaline and harmane, also did not alter phosphoinositide hydrolysis. Comparison of these results with previous drug discrimination studies indicated the apparent lack of correlation between the degree of substitution in LSD- and DOM-trained animals and efficacy in stimulating phosphoinositide hydrolysis. The present study indicates that 5-HT2A-mediated stimulation of phosphoinositide hydrolysis does not appear to be the sole critical signaling mechanism involved in the discriminative effects of hallucinogens. © 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
2001
Vollenweider, F. X., & Geyer, M. A. (2001). A systems model of altered consciousness: Integrating natural and drug-induced psychoses. In Brain Research Bulletin
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0361-9230(01)00646-3
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“Increasing evidence from neuroimaging and behavioral studies suggests that functional disturbances within cortico-striato-thalamic pathways are critical to psychotic symptom formation in drug-induced and possibly also naturally occurring psychoses. Recent basic and clinical research with psychotomimetic drugs, such as the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptor antagonist, ketamine, and the serotonin-2A (5-HT2A) receptor agonist, psilocybin, suggest that the hallucinogenic effects of these drugs arise, at least in part, from their common capacity to disrupt thalamo-cortical gating of external and internal information to the cortex. Deficient gating of sensory and cognitive information is thought to result in an overloading inundation of information and subsequent cognitive fragmentation and psychosis. Cross-species studies of homologues gating functions, such as prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex, in animal and human models of psychosis corroborate this view and provide a translational testing mechanism for the exploration of novel pathophysiologic and therapeutic hypotheses relevant to psychotic disorders, such as the group of schizophrenias. © 2001 Elsevier Science Inc.
Ho, E., Karimi-Tabesh, L., & Koren, G. (2001). Characteristics of pregnant women who use Ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine). Neurotoxicology And Teratology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0892-0362(01)00178-7
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“To determine the characteristics of pregnant women who use Ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, MDMA), and to identify reproductive risk factors associated with this group of women. Prospective, observational study. Pregnant women who have contacted the Motherisk Alcohol and Substance Use Helpline at The Hospital for Sick Children, in Toronto, about exposure to drugs, chemicals, infection or radiation. All inquiries from December 1998 to October 2000 concerning pregnant women who reported use of MDMA, and control cases of women not exposed to MDMA selected within the same week of the MDMA callers. Age, maternal demographics, pregnancy characteristics, patterns of alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drug use, psychological/emotional status, sexually transmitted disease, MDMA method and pattern of use, and adverse drug reactions after ingestion of MDMA. The 132 pregnant women who used MDMA were significantly younger (mean 23.2 vs. 31.2 years, P<.0001), and had more unplanned pregnancies compared to 122 pregnant nonusers (84.2% vs. 54.3%, P<.05). MDMA users were also more likely to be single (57.0% vs. 18.3%, P<.001), and to be White (82.2% vs. 56.0%, P<.05). Comparably more MDMA users smoked cigarettes (53.8% vs. 19.7%, P<.0001), drank alcohol (66.4% vs. 37.3%, P<.0001), and had significantly more episodes of binge drinking during pregnancy (mean 2.12 vs. 0.05, P<.001). Illicit drugs such as cocaine, marijuana, methamphetamine, ketamine, gamma-hydroxy butyrate, and psilocybin were used more frequently among the MDMA sample. Over a third of MDMA users reported psychiatric/emotional problems, including 6.5% with a clinically diagnosed condition that was being treated with medication and/or counseling. Pregnant women who use MDMA tend to be young, single, and report psychological morbidity, and have a clustering of risk factors that may compromise the pregnancy and fetus. Smoking, heavy alcohol intake, and polydrug use, combined with a higher than expected rate of unplanned pregnancies, increases the risk of fetal exposure to potentially harmful substances. It is important to account for the range of confounding risk factors among women who use MDMA in order to define possible direct effects of MDMA in pregnancy. © 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
Vollenweider, F. X. (2001). Brain mechanisms of hallucinogens and entactogens. Dialogues In Clinical Neuroscience
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“This review focuses on recent brain imaging and behavioral studies of sensory gating functions, which assess similarities between the effects of classic hallucinogens (eg, psilocybin), dissociative anesthetics (eg, ketamine), and entactogens (eg, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine [MDMA]) in humans. Serotonergic hallucinogens and psychotomimetic anesthetics produce overlapping psychotic syndromes associated with a marked activation of the prefrontal cortex (hyperfrontality) and other overlapping changes in temporoparietal, striatal, and thalamic regions, suggesting that both classes of drugs act upon a common final pathway. Together with the observation that both hallucinogens and N-methyl-oaspartate (NMDA) antagonists disrupt sensory gating in rats by acting on 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) 5-HT(2) receptors located in cortico-striato-thalamic circuitry these findings suggest that disruption of cortico-subcortical processing leading to sensory overload of the cortex is a communality of these psychoses. In contrast to hallucinogens, the entactogen MDMA produces an emotional state of positive mood, concomitant with an activation of prefrontolimbiclparalimbic structures and a deactivation of amygdala and thalamus.
Riley, S. C. E., James, C., Gregory, D., Dingle, H., & Cadger, M. (2001). Patterns of recreational drug use at dance events in Edinburgh, Scotland. Addiction
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.967103513.x
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“AIMS: To describe the patterns of drug use at dance (rave) events in terms of prevalence, frequency, type of drugs used, patterns of use, access and risk-associated behaviours.\n\nDESIGN: Self-selecting participant-completed survey.\n\nSETTING: Three dance events in Edinburgh, Scotland, UK.\n\nPARTICIPANTS: One hundred and twenty-two drug users (57% males, 43% females), 90% of whom were in employment or education, with an age range of 16-47, 80% between 18 and 23 years.\n\nMEASUREMENTS: Participants who answered ‘yes’ to the question ‘Have you used drugs for dance events in the past year’ reported (i) the prevalence, types and frequency of drugs used; (ii) prevalence and contents of mixing drugs; (iii) accessing drugs; and (iv) engagement with drug-associated risk behaviours.\n\nFINDINGS: Over 80% of the participants had used ecstasy and amphetamine, over 30% cocaine and LSD; over 10% nitrites, psilocybin and ketamine and less than 5% had used crack or tranquillizers. Participants reported regular consumption of ecstasy and amphetamine (e.g. 35% used ecstasy and 25% amphetamine on a weekly basis) often taken in combination, with the occasional use of cocaine, LSD, ketamine and psilocybin. Poly- and mixing-drug behaviours were significantly more likely than monodrug usage. Drugs were accessed through friends than from any other source. Eighty-five per cent reported mixing drugs and/or alcohol, 35% driving on drugs, 36% having a bad experience on drugs; 30% unprotected sex; and 0.9% injecting drugs. Women in the sample reported higher consumption than men.\n\nCONCLUSIONS: Dance-drug use has a characteristic pattern that has implications for health promotion and criminal policy.
Vetulani, J. (2001). Drug addiction. Part I. Psychoactive substances in the past and presence. Polish Journal Of Pharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/jtm.12160
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“Substances capable of changing the functions of the central nervous system are widely distributed in plant kingdom, and many of them were discovered by ancient food-gatherers at the dawn of humanity. In the Old World only a few substances producing euphoria or altered states of consciousness and having habit-forming properties are still widely used. They are the products of poppy (opium, morphine), hemp (hashish, marijuana), and of fermentation of various organic materials alkohol. This list has recently been joined by the psilocybin-containing mushrooms. The addiction-forming compounds originated in the New World and widely spread are tobacco (nicotine) and cocaine. In the 19th and 20th, century the development of medicinal chemistry resulted in several synthetic compounds, originally proposed as therapeutics, such as barbiturates, benzodiazepines and amphetamines. Due to legal problems, to avoid production of the substances already prohibited, many designer drugs were manufactured. In addition, several compounds were synthesized as recreational drugs. Also some compounds that were not regarded as drugs, such as aromatic hydrocarbons and other cleansing agents, as well as steroids were found to have properties of dangerous, habit-forming agents. The attitude of society and the pattern of use of psychoactive substances have changed with time, particularly in the last decades. The active principles are now more addictive because of concentration, purification, chemical modifications and the way of ingestion, which now favors most rapid transport to the central nervous system. The substance abuse approaches the level of global epidemics, and the recent usage of drugs of addition is also reviewed.
Cervigni, L. (2001). S. Emiliano (Padenghe sul Garda – BS): analisi di una pieve e del suo complesso rurale. Archeologia Dell’architettura
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-21640-4_41
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“1 We have reviewed the clinical features and management of 44 consecutive patients presenting to hospital over a 5 week period during an outbreak of ingestion of psilocybin containing mushrooms. 2 Patients presented to hospital usually because of dysphoric effects an average of 3.8 h after ingesting mushrooms. 3 Mydriasis was present in 40 patients but fewer than half showed other sympathomimetic features–tachycardia, hypertension or hyperreflexia. 4 Twenty-three patients experienced nausea and vomiting. 5 Distortions of perception chiefly visual were frequent as were paraesthesiae and feelings of depersonalization. 6 The effects of the mushrooms were short-lived and had worn off within 12 h in all but one patient. 7 Inducing emesis did not appear to hasten recovery from the effects of the mushrooms.
Krajewska-Kulak, E., Lukaszuk, C., Lewkol, J., Niczyporuk, W., & Winter, G. (2001). Ocena wpływu ekstraktu z grejpfruta na wzrost grzybów drożdżopodobnych z gatunku Candida albicans. Doniesienie wstȩpne. Mikologia Lekarska
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2017.1348043
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“Background: New psychoactive substances (NPS) are an emerging and serious threat to public health. Clandestine laboratories are constantly producing new chemicals and combinations of substances with intent to augment the drug user’s experience. We report three cases of dramatic psychostimulant toxicity involving a combination of NPS and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Cases: Three 20-year-old college students presented to the emergency department with altered mental status after using blotter paper sold to them as ‘“acid” before a football game. They all used the same product. All three patients had mydriasis, delirium, psychosis with visual and auditory hallucinations, and combative behavior requiring chemical sedation and physical restraint. One patient sustained minor head trauma after repeatedly hitting her head on a wall but had a normal CT brain. Initial vital signs in all patients were remarkable for tachycardia and hypertension with normal temperature and oxygen saturation. Laboratory evaluations for all three patients showed normal values on CBC, CPK, and chemistry panels; ECGs showed normal intervals. Urine drug screens were negative for amfetamines and cocaine in all patients; one patient was positive for THC. All three patients were admitted and improved after 24 h of observation with no sequela. Initial serum samples obtained on ED presentation were analyzed using liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry to evaluate the presence of NPS. Serum analysis for all three patients confirmed the presence of LSD, N-propyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamfetamine (3,4-MDPA), 3-methoxy-2-keto-1-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-pyrrolidine (3-MeO-2-keto-PCPy), and 4-Acetyloxy-N,Ndiallyltryptamine (4-AcO-DALT). Discussion: 3,4-MDPA is a psychoactive substituted phenethylamine and thought to be an enhancer for hallucinogenic drugs. 3-MeO-2-keto-PCPy is a novel dissociative drug and analog of phencylidine. 4-AcO-DALT is a novel tryptamine compound that is chemically similar to psilocybin. All three of these substances are believed to act as enhancers/adjuvants for hallucinogenic drugs. In our cases, patients exhibited sympathomimetic and psychostimulant effects with self-injurious behavior. The duration of effects observed in our patients was about 24 h and all improved with no sequela. Conclusions: Our cases show that 3,4-MDPA, 3-Meo-2-keto-PCPy, and 4-AcO-DALT can be present in combination with hallucinogenic drugs like LSD, and produce dramatic psychostimulant effects on users. Toxicologists should anticipate the presence of NPS when evaluating patients with severe or unusual toxidromes.
2000
Schmid, L., Koller, R., Vollenweider, F. X., & Umbricht, D. (2000). The role of NMDA/glutamate and 5-HT2A/serotonin systems in working memory deficits in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research
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“Deficits in short-duration (‘working’) memory tasks are well documented in schizophrenia. They are manifested in tasks that require processing and utilization of previously presented contextual information. We investigated the roles of the NMDA/glutamate and the 5-HT2a/serotonin system in these deficits. The effects of ketamine — a NMDA receptor antago- nist — and psilocybin — a 5-HT2a agonist — on the perfor- mance of healthy volunteers in a modified ‘AX’-CPT were examined in two separate placebo-controlled, single-blind studies (Ketamine study: N = 20, age: 24.6 + 3.0 y, M/F = 12/6; psilobycin study: N = 18 subjects, age: 25.1 _ 2.1 y, M/F = 10/8). To obtain comparative data task performance was also assessed in 23 schizophrenic patients (age: 35.0+8.9y, M/F= 17/6). By varying interstimulus intervals both acquisition and mainte- nance of information could be assessed. Results: In healthy volunteers both agents induced significant and comparable deficits in performance. Specifically, subjects committed more errors indicative of impaired processing of contextual information, regardless of ISI. As expected patients demonstrated a specific and significant increase of ‘context- dependent’ errors — irrespective of ISI — when compared to healthy volunteers prior to drug administration. However, deficits in patient were indistinguishable from ketamine- or psilocybin-induced deficits in normal controls. These results suggest (1) that both NMDA blockade and 5-HT2A stimula- tion result in comparable impairments of working memory; (2) processes involving information acquisition/encoding seem more affected than information maintenance; (3) Abnormalities in both NMDA- and 5-HT2A receptor systems may either independently or jointly contribute to deficits in working memory systems in schizophrenia.
Sticht, G., & Käferstein, H. (2000). Detection of psilocin in body fluids. In Forensic Science International
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0379-0738(00)00213-9
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“Active compounds of some mushrooms e.g. Psilocybe cubensis, Paneolus subalteatus or Stropharia coronilla, the psychotropic agents psilocybin and psilocin, have hallucinogenic effects. In one case of ‘magic mushroom’ intake, we had to analyse blood and urine. Psilocin was detected in the urine with REMEDi HS. Most of the psilocin was excreted as the glucuronide. Therefore an enzymatic hydrolysis should be the first step in analysis. Free psilocin was determined at a concentration of 0.23 mg/l while the total amount was 1.76 mg/l urine. The concentration of psilocin in serum was too low for detection with REMEDi HS. We proved a GC-MS-method with d3-morphine as internal standard and silylation with MSTFA. Similarly to urine, most of the psilocin in serum was found in the conjugated form. The concentration of free psilocin was 0.018 mg/l, that of total psilocin, 0.052 mg/l serum. Copyright (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd.
Eurodiet core report,. (2000). Nutrition & diet for healthy lifestyles in Europe : science & policy implications. Public health nutrition
https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881110388326
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“Psilocin (4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) is a hallucinogen that acts as an agonist at 5-HT(1A), 5-HT(2A), and 5-HT(2C) receptors. Psilocin is the active metabolite of psilocybin, a hallucinogen that is currently being investigated clinically as a potential therapeutic agent. In the present investigation, we used a combination of genetic and pharmacological approaches to identify the serotonin (5-HT) receptor subtypes responsible for mediating the effects of psilocin on head twitch response (HTR) and the behavioral pattern monitor (BPM) in C57BL/6J mice. We also compared the effects of psilocin with those of the putative 5-HT(2C) receptor-selective agonist 1-methylpsilocin and the hallucinogen and non-selective serotonin receptor agonist 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT). Psilocin, 1-methylpsilocin, and 5-MeO-DMT induced the HTR, effects that were absent in mice lacking the 5-HT(2A) receptor gene. When tested in the BPM, psilocin decreased locomotor activity, holepoking, and time spent in the center of the chamber, effects that were blocked by the selective 5-HT(1A) antagonist WAY-100635 but were not altered by the selective 5-HT(2C) antagonist SB 242,084 or by 5-HT(2A) receptor gene deletion. 5-MeO-DMT produced similar effects when tested in the BPM, and the action of 5-MeO-DMT was significantly attenuated by WAY-100635. Psilocin and 5-MeO-DMT also decreased the linearity of locomotor paths, effects that were mediated by 5-HT(2C) and 5-HT(1A) receptors, respectively. In contrast to psilocin and 5-MeO-DMT, 1-methylpsilocin (0.6-9.6 mg/kg) was completely inactive in the BPM. These findings confirm that psilocin acts as an agonist at 5-HT(1A), 5-HT(2A), and 5-HT(2C) receptors in mice, whereas the behavioral effects of 1-methylpsilocin indicate that this compound is acting at 5-HT(2A) sites but is inactive at the 5-HT(1A) receptor. The fact that 1-methylpsilocin displays greater pharmacological selectivity than psilocin indicates that 1-methylpsilocin represents a potentially useful alternative to psilocybin for development as a potential therapeutic agent.
Friedman, M. J. (2000). Dental water lines. Compend Contin Educ Dent
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbs117 LK – http://hy8fy9jj4b.search.serialssolutions.com/?sid=EMBASE&sid=EMBASE&issn=05867614&id=doi:10.1093%2Fschbul%2Fsbs117&atitle=Functional+connectivity+measures+after+psilocybin+inform+a+novel+hypothesis+of+early+psychosis&stitle=Schizophr.+Bull.&title=Schizophrenia+Bulletin&volume=39&issue=6&spage=1343&epage=1351&aulast=Carhart-Harris&aufirst=Robin+L.&auinit=R.L.&aufull=Carhart-Harris+R.L.&coden=SCZBB&isbn=&pages=1343-1351&date=2013&auinit1=R&auinitm=L.
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“Psilocybin is a classic psychedelic and a candidate drug model of psychosis. This study measured the effects of psilocybin on resting-state network and thalamocortical functional connectivity (FC) using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Fifteen healthy volunteers received intravenous infusions of psilocybin and placebo in 2 task-free resting-state scans. Primary analyses focused on changes in FC between the default-mode- (DMN) and task-positive network (TPN). Spontaneous activity in the DMN is orthogonal to spontaneous activity in the TPN, and it is well known that these networks support very different functions (ie, the DMN supports introspection, whereas the TPN supports externally focused attention). Here, independent components and seed-based FC analyses revealed increased DMN-TPN FC and so decreased DMN-TPN orthogonality after psilocybin. Increased DMN-TPN FC has been found in psychosis and meditatory states, which share some phenomenological similarities with the psychedelic state. Increased DMN-TPN FC has also been observed in sedation, as has decreased thalamocortical FC, but here we found preserved thalamocortical FC after psilocybin. Thus, we propose that thalamocortical FC may be related to arousal, whereas DMN-TPN FC is related to the separateness of internally and externally focused states. We suggest that this orthogonality is compromised in early psychosis, explaining similarities between its phenomenology and that of the psychedelic state and supporting the utility of psilocybin as a model of early psychosis. © 2012 The Author.
Gross, S. T. (2000). Detecting psychoactive drugs in the developmental stages of mushrooms. J Forensic Sci
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“The following questions regarding the detection of psychoactive drugs in mushrooms are addressed: At what stage of the mushroom development can the psychoactive drugs psilocyn and psilocybin be identified, and what effect does light have on the growth of these mushrooms. To answer these questions, Psilocybe cyanescens Wakefield mushrooms were grown from their spores in a controlled setting. At various times of their development, samples were taken and analyzed for psilocyn and psilocybin. Knowing what stage of development the psychoactive drugs can be identified may be useful to law enforcement personnel and forensic chemists. Methanolic extracts of various samples were analyzed by TLC and by GC/MS. It was determined that the mycelium knot stage of the mushroom was the earliest stage at which the psychoactive drugs could be detected. It was observed that light affected the time of development and the appearance of these mushrooms.
Salomé, F., Boyer, P., & Fayol, M. (2000). The effects of psychoactive drugs and neuroleptics on language in normal subjects and schizophrenic patients: A review. European Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0924-9338(00)00520-4
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“The aim of this survey is to present an overview of research into psychopharmacology as regards the effects of different psychoactive drugs and neuroleptics (NL) on language in normal subjects and schizophrenic patients. Eighteen studies that have investigated the effects of different drugs (alcohol, amphetamines, secobarbital, L-dopa, psilocybin, ketamine, fenfluramine) and neuroleptics (conventional and atypical) on language are reviewed. There are no studies concerning the effects of neuroleptics on language in healthy subjects. The results of the effects of other molecules indicate that language production can be increased (alcohol, amphetamine, secobarbital), rendered more complex (d-amphetamine), more focused (L-dopa) or more unfocused (psilocybin) and clearly impaired (ketamine). For schizophrenic patients, most studies show that conventional neuroleptic treatments, at a therapeutic dosage and in acute or chronic mode, reduce language disorders at all levels (clinic, linguistic, psycholinguistic). In conjunction with other molecules, the classical NL, when administered at a moderate dosage and in chronic mode, modify language in schizophrenia, either by improving the verbal flow and reducing pauses and positive thought disorder (NL + amphetamine) or by inducing an impairment in the language measurements (NL + fenfluramine). Clinical, methodological and theoretical considerations of results are debated in the framework of schizophrenic language disorders. © 2000 Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS.
Musshoff, F., Madea, B., & Beike, J. (2000). Hallucinogenic mushrooms on the German market – Simple instructions for examination and identification. In Forensic Science International
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0379-0738(00)00211-5
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“’Magic mushrooms’ is the name most commonly given to psychoactive fungi containing the hallucinogenic components psilocybin and psilocin. Material confiscated by local authorities was examined using morphologic, microscopic, microchemical, and toxicological methods. Psilocybe cubensis was the most popular mushroom in the sample collective, followed by Psilocybe semilanceata, Panaeolus cyanescens and Psilocybe tampanensis. The alkaloid content was determined with <0.003-1.15% of psilocybin and 0.01-0.90% psilocin. Panaeolus cyanescens was the mushroom with highest levels of psilocybin and psilocin. Copyright (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd.
Asselborn, G., Wennig, R., & Yegles, M. (2000). Tragic flying attempt under the influence of ‘magic mushrooms’. Z Zagadnien Nauk Sadowych
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“In this study a fatal case caused by the ingestion of magic mushrooms is reported. After a trip to the Netherlands a young girl had ingested a handful of psilocybe mushrooms with a soft drink. Soon later, she was trying to fly from the window and died in the street while falling from a room situated on the second floor of a house. The victim was not known by the law enforcement authorities to be a chronic drug addict. The autopsy revealed a traumatic cause of death whereas post-mortem toxicological analysis outlined consumption of psilocybin and cannabis. Psilocybin/psilocin content in the mushroom was determined by capillary electrophoresis. The general toxicological screening for drugs was negative except for psilocin and cannabinoids in blood and urine. Quantification of psilocin was done by EI-GC/MS operating in the SIM mode after derivatization with MSTFA and with bufotenin (a constitutional isomer) as internal standard. The concentrations were 0.06 mg/l for heart blood and 0.22 mg/l for femoral venous blood. Moreover, blood levels for cannabinoids were the following: 0.03 mg/l (THC), 0.008 mg/l (11-OH-THC) and 0.09 mg/l (THC-COOH). No psilocin could be detected in hair. This is the first case to our knowledge that psilocybin consumption was indirectly related to a fatal outcome.
Pierrot, M., Josse, P., Raspiller, M. F., Goulmy, M., Rambourg, M. O., Manel, J., & Lambert, H. (2000). [Intoxications by hallucinogenic mushrooms]. Annales De Médecine Interne
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“In the context of excessive use of natural or synthetic psychoactive substances, with stimulating, psychedelic and hallucinogenic effects, an increase, if not a recurrence, in consumption of Psilocybe semilanceata has been observed in France over some fifteen years. Psilocybin and psilocin are the active compounds, responsible for the hallucinogenic effects and are a part of the substance group, derived from tryptamine and characterized by an indole nucleus. We report a clinical case observed in an emergency unit and review the historical, epidemiological and pharmacological data now available for these intoxications. Of particular interests in hallucinogenic mushroom abuse are: increased consumption in the context of youth cultural and entertainment movements; possible difficulties in the diagnosis in emergency conditions; possibility of severe and fatal complications.
Barrett, S. P., Archambault, J., Engelberg, M. J., & Pihl, R. O. (2000). Hallucinogenic drugs attenuate the subjective response to alcohol in humans. Human Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/1099-1077(200010)15:7<559::AID-HUP230>3.0.CO;2-J
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“This study investigated possible interactions between alcohol and hallucinogens in 22 lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and/or psilocybin users through retrospective structured interviews. Of those who had used LSD with alcohol, 86;7 per cent reported a complete blockade of subjective alcohol effects, while the remaining cases reported a diminished response. In addition, 60 per cent of respondents who had used alcohol and psilocybin together reported a partial antagonism of subjective alcohol effects.T-test analyses revealed that LSD’s antagonism of alcohol effects were significantly greater than those associated with psilocybin. It is proposed that LSD’s effect on alcohol intoxication may involve interactions with various serotonergic and/or dopaminergic receptor systems. Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
1999
Sekine, K., & Inoue, H. (1999). Generalization of the Taylor-Bishop-Hill theories and the rate-dependent slip model in crystal plasticity. Tetsu-To-Hagane/journal Of The Iron And Steel Institute Of Japan
Plain numerical DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-440X(62)80024-8
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“Summary Mescaline, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25) and psilocybin were studied in 20 screened subjects, 18 receiving all three drugs. Drugs were administered under similar test conditions, doses were constant between drugs and subjects, assignments to drug followed a latin-square sequence, and subjects were unaware of the drug given on each trial. Clinical syndromes were assessed by a questionnaire completed by the subjects following each drug trial. Color perception was studied by means of both adequate and inadequate stimuli for eliciting color phenomena, measurements being taken before and two hours after drug was administered. A number of selected biochemical and physiologic measurements were also made at similar times. Clinical syndromes were comparable in kind and degree from all three drugs, that from mescaline being most pronounced. Somatic manifestations predominated, psychotomimetic symptoms (other than visual hallucinations) being relatively uncommon. Color perception was not much altered when adequate stimuli were used, but color phenomena were appreciably enhanced from inadequate stimuli. Minor differences in color perceptual effects were noted between the three drugs, but similarities were greater. Each of the three drugs significantly decreased urinary excretion of inorganic phosphorus, increased plasma free fatty acids and decreased total circulating eosinophils. Of the other biochemical measurements made, only one other significant change was noted; an increase in copper oxidase activity after psilocybin. The three psychotomimetic drugs were quite comparable in the areas studied. One might assume that they have many common mechanisms of action despite their chemical differences.
BERGE, J. O. S. T. E. N. (1999). Breakdown or Breakthrough? A History of European Research into Drugs and Creativity. The Journal Of Creative Behavior
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/j.2162-6057.1999.tb01406.x
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“Language barriers have largely prevented American scholars from learning about European studies concerning drugs and creativity. This article discusses several Swiss, English, French and German studies conducted from the 1940s to the 1970s, offering new data in a research area that has been banned since drugs like mescalin, psilocybin, and LSD became illegal. Different views of the operations of these drugs, revealed by such terms as “hallucinogens,” “psychotogenics,” and “psychedelics,” appear to have colored researchers’ aims to a large extent. The notions of drugs “dictating” or “liberating” the intoxicated artist are criticized by discussing the importance of set and setting. It is proposed that intentional drug use among artists expecting artistic breakthroughs while intoxicated, can be seen as a form of “gaucherie” or disinhibiting technique. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved).
Babakhanian, R. V., Ivanova, G. V., Kostyrko, T. A., Safraĭ, A. E., & Iagmurov, O. D. (1999). [The morphofunctional changes in the internal organs in the modelling of poisonings by psilocybine-containing mushrooms]. Sudebno-Meditsinskaia Ekspertiza
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“Histological analysis of the viscera in experimental poisoning with psilocybin-containing mushrooms showed nonspecific changes in all examined organs, presenting as expressed hemocirculatory disorders and intracellular dystrophy. Quantitative histochemical analysis showed appreciable shifts in the activities of enzymes involved in the cytoplasmic and mitochondrial redox processes and of specific enzymes involved in nerve tissue metabolism. This may reflect some features in the direct effects of narcotic alkaloids contained in psilocybin-producing mushrooms.
Senn-Irlet, B., Nyffenegger, A., & Brenneisen, R. (1999). Panaeolus bisporus – An adventitious fungus in central Europe, rich in psilocin. Mycologist
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0269-915X(99)80107-4
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“This is the first record of Panaeolus bisporus, originally described from Morocco, in central Europe; and first evidence of psilocybin and psilocin in this species.
Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E., Schreckenberger, M., Sabri, O., Hermle, L., Büll, U., & Sass, H. (1999). Neurometabolic Effects of Psilocybin , ( MDE ) and d-Methamphetamine in Healthy Volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0893-133X(98)00089-X
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“The neurometabolic effects of the hallucinogen psilocybin (PSI; 0.2 mg/kg), the entactogen 3,4- methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDE; 2 mg/kg) and the stimulant d-methamphetamine (METH; 0.2–0.4 mg/kg) and the drugs’ interactions with a prefrontal activation task were investigated in a double-blind, placebo-controlled human [F-18]fluorodeoxyglucoseFDG-positron emission tomographicPET study (each group: n 5 8). Subjects underwent two scans (control: word repetition; activation: word association) within 2–4 weeks. Psilocybin increased rMRGlu in distinct right hemispheric frontotemporal cortical regions, particularly in the anterior cingulate and decreased rMRGlu in the thalamus. Both MDE and METH induced cortical hypometabolism and cerebellar hypermetabolism. In the MDE group, cortical hypometabolism was more pronounced in frontal regions, with the exception of the right anterior cingulate, which tended to be hyperactive. Cognitive activation-related increases in left frontocortical regions were attenuated under all three psychoactive substances, but less so under MDE. Taking into account performance data and subjective reports on task difficulty, these effects may result from different mechanisms across the three groups. Our PSI data are in line with studies on acute schizophrenic patients suggesting frontal overactivity at rest, but diminished capacity to activate prefrontal regions upon cognitive demand. The MDE data support the hypothesis that entactogens constitute a distinct psychoactive substance class, which takes an intermediate position between stimulants and hallucinogens.
Chuang, Y. C., Chang, W. N., Lu, C. H., Y.-C., C., & W.-N., C. (1999). Adult Citrobacter freundii meningitis: case report. Changgeng Yi Xue Za Zhi
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2004.11.031
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“The determination of psilocybin was carried out by reversed-phase liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence (FL) detection. Psilocybin was labeled with 5-dimethylaminonaphthalene-1-[N-(2-aminoethyl)]sulfonamide (DNS-ED) at 60 °C for 4 h in the presence of 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-carbodiimide (EDC) as the activation reagent. The resulting derivative was separated on a Mightysil RP-18 GP column (150 mm × 4.6 mm, i.d. 3 μm) with the mixture of 50 mM ammonium acetate (AcONH4) and CH3CN, and detected at 539 nm (excitation at 321 nm). The structure of the derivative was identified by HPLC-ESI-MS. A good linear relation of the calibration curve of psilocybin was observed under the proposed conditions for labeling, separation and detection. The quantification limit was 4.4 ng in 1 mg dried mushroom. The proposed procedure was successfully used for the determination of psilocybin in real samples. The contents of psilocybin in six magic mushrooms by the proposed HPLC-FL method were less than 20.0 ng in 1 mg dried samples. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1998
Vollenweider, F. X., Vollenweider-Scherpenhuyzen, M. F. I., Bäbler, A., Vogel, H., & Hell, D. (1998). Psilocybin induces schizophrenia-like psychosis in humans via a serotonin-2 agonist action. Neuroreport
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1097/00001756-199812010-00024
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“Psilocybin, an indoleamine hallucinogen, produces a psychosis-like syndrome in humans that resembles first episodes of schizophrenia. In healthy human volunteers, the psychotomimetic effects of psilocybin were blocked dose-dependently by the serotonin-2A antagonist ketanserin or the atypical antipsychotic risperidone, but were increased by the dopamine antagonist and typical antipsychotic haloperidol. These data are consistent with animal studies and provide the first evidence in humans that psilocybin-induced psychosis is due to serotonin-2A receptor activation, independently of dopamine stimulation. Thus, serotonin-2A overactivity may be involved in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and serotonin-2A antagonism may contribute to therapeutic effects of antipsychotics\n
Pedersen-Bjergaard, S., & Rasmussen, K. E. (1998). Capillary electrophoresis of psilocybin in hallucinogenic mushrooms. Journal De Pharmacie De Belgique
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“Capillary electrophoresis was utilized for the rapid determination of psilocybin in the hallucinogenic mushroom Psilocybe semilanceata. Following a simple two step extraction with 3.0 + 2.0 ml methanol, the hallucinogenic compound was effectively separated from matrix components utilizing capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) with a 10 mM borate/phosphate running buffer adjusted to pH 11.5. Quantitation was accomplished utilizing barbital as internal standard. The calibration curve for psilocybin was linear within 0.01 – 1 mg/ml, while intra-day and inter-day variations of quantitative data were 0.and 2.5 % RSD respectively. For identity confirmation, rapid derivatization with propyl chloroformate in the methanolic extract and re-analysis was performed in order to effectively support the identification of psilocybin. In addition to this alkaloid, the method was capable also for the determination of the structurally related compounds baecystin and psilocin.
Beck, O., Helander, A., Karlson-Stiber, C., & Stephansson, N. (1998). Presence of phenylethylamine in hallucinogenic Psilocybe mushroom: Possible role in adverse reactions. Journal Of Analytical Toxicology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1093/jat/22.1.45
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“The use of mushrooms containing the hallucinogenic substance psilocybin for intentional intoxication is relatively common. Occasionally, this results in adverse reactions with typical tachycardia that is not evidently caused by psilocybin. This study demonstrates the presence of phenylethylamine in the species Psilocybe semilanceata using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and shows that the amount of this substance may vary much more than that of psilocybin. The highest amount of phenylethylamine (146 microg/g wet weight) was observed in mushrooms from a case of three young men hospitalized because of adverse reactions. Comparison of the symptoms observed in clinical cases of magic mushroom intoxication with those after intake of pure psilocybin or phenylethylamine suggests that phenylethylamine might have a role in the development of adverse reactions to Psilocybe mushroom intake.
Vollenweider, F. (1998). Advances and Pathophysiological Models of Hallucinogenic Drug Actions in Humans: A Preamble to Schizophrenia Research. Pharmacopsychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1055/s-2007-979353
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“Recent research into the pharmacological mechanism of hallucinogens (LSD, psilocybin) and dissociative anesthetics (PCP, ketamine) suggest that multiple neurotransmitter systems are involved in drug-induced and possibly also in naturally occurring psychoses. Specifically, animal models suggest that a dysbalance between serotonin, glutamate, and dopamine in the limbic cortico-striato-thalamic circuitry may be critical to psychotic symptom formation. To test this hypothesis, psychometric measures and metabolic PET investigations were performed (1) with FDG to elucidate the common neuronal substrates of different hallucinogens, (2) with specific receptor ligands before and after pretreatment with specific receptor antagonists to explore the putative interactions of hallucinogens with various neurotransmitter systems. Our data demonstrate that the neuronal substrate of normal and abnormal thought and behavior is associated with a distributed neuronal network and with multiple interactive neurotransmitter systems. The data also support the view that the hallucinogen challenge paradigm constitutes a powerful tool for elucidating the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric disorders.
1997
Pedersen-Bjergaard, S., Sannes, E., Rasmussen, K. E., & Tønnesen, F. (1997). Determination of psilocybin in Psilocybe semilanceata by capillary zone electrophoresis. Journal Of Chromatography B: Biomedical Applications
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0378-4347(97)00127-8
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“A capillary zone electrophoretic (CZE) method was developed for the rapid determination of psilocybin in Psilocybe semilanceata. Following a simple two step extraction with 3.0+2.0 ml methanol, the hallucinogenic compound was effectively separated from matrix components by CZE utilizing a 10 mM borate-phosphate running buffer adjusted to pH 11.5. The identity of psilocybin was confirmed by migration time information and by W spectra, while quantitation was accomplished utilizing barbital as internal standard. The calibration curve for psilocybin was linear within 0.01-1 mg/ml, while intra-day and inter-day variations of quantitative data were 0.5 and 2.5% R.S.D., respectively. In addition to psilocybin, the method was also suitable for the determination of the structurally related compound baeocystin.
Stijve, T. (1997). Psilocybin mushrooms of the world: an identification guide. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, USA, (1996). Mycologist
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0269-915X(97)80025-0
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“From the author of GROWING GOURMET AND MEDICINAL MUSHROOMS comes the only identification guide exclusively devoted to the world’s psilocybin-containing mushrooms. Detailed descriptions and color photographs for over 100 species are provided, as well as an exploration of their long-standing (and often religious) use by ancient peoples and their continued significance to modern-day culture. Some of the species included have just been discovered in the past year or two, and still others have never before been photographed in their natural habitats.
Pai, V. S., Ranganathan, P., & Adve, S. V. (1997). The impact of instruction-level parallelism on multiprocessor performance and simulation methodology. Proceedings Third International Symposium On High-Performance Computer Architecture
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/14737175.2016.1220834
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“INTRODUCTION: Evidence based treatment for Substance use disorders (SUD) includes psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy. However, these are only partially effective. Hallucinogens, such as psilocybin, may represent potential new treatment options for SUD. This review provides a summary of (human) studies on the putative therapeutic effects of psilocybin, and discusses the receptor systems, brain regions and cognitive and emotional processes mediating psilocybin’s effects. Psilocybin’s chemical structure is similar to that of serotonin. Dysregulations in the serotonin system are associated with alterations in stress hormones, such as cortisol, and mood disorders. After psilocybin administration cortisol levels spike and activate the executive control network, with subsequent increased control over emotional processes, and relief of negative thinking and persistent negative emotions. Preliminary data of ongoing alcohol and smoking addiction studies in humans shows promising effects of psilocybin administration on substance use. Importantly, psilocybin has a low risk of toxicity and dependence and can be used safely under controlled clinical conditions. AREAS COVERED: This paper is a narrative review based on the search terms: psilocybin, substance use disorder, addiction, depression, serotonin. Literature on potential efficacy and mechanisms of action of psilocybin in SUD is discussed. Expert commentary: Recent positive findings with psilocybin need confirmation in well-designed placebo controlled randomized trials employing a large sample size.
Greenberg, G. (1997). Good trips, bad trips: Psychedelic drugs and dissociation. In Broken images, broken selves: Dissociative narratives in clinical practice. BT – Broken images, broken selves: Dissociative narratives in clinical practice.
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“Psychedelic experience is inherently dissociative, a journey to psychic places unknown. Some trips are terrifying, others ecstatic, but many of them offer unique opportunities for therapeutic exploration and growth. This chapter relates 2 “travelogues” of people who used psilocybin mushrooms. One trip was frightening and unpleasant, the other joyful. But both became an integral part of therapy and had an important influence on the experiencers’ lives. A brief account of the history of psychedelic drug use in clinical practice is provided to help set the stage for a discussion of therapeutic interventions with psychedelic drug users. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)(chapter)
Lodewijks, J. (1997). Looking thru the Rostovian crystal ball. Indian Journal Of Applied Economics
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1192/bjp.bp.114.148031
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“After a 40-year hiatus there is now a revisiting of psychedelic drug therapy throughout psychiatry. with studies examining the drugs psilocybin, ketamine, ibogaine and ayahuasca in treatment of drug dependence. Limitations to these therapies are both clinical and legal, but the possibility of improving outcomes for patients with substance dependency imposes an obligation to research this area.
1996
Spitzer, M., Thimm, M., Hermle, L., Holzmann, P., Kovar, K. A., Heimann, H., et al. (1996). Increased activation of indirect semantic associations under psilocybin. Biological Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0006-3223(95)00418-1
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“he spread of activation in semantic networks can be measured using semantic and indirect semantic priming effects in lexical decision tasks (Spitzer et al 1993a and b). For example, in thought-disordered schizophrenic patients, activation spreads faster and farther than in non-thought-disordered patients and normal subjects, which results in an increased direct and indirect semantic priming effect (see below). This has been interpreted as the result of a decreased signal-to-noise ratio in cortical neural networks that process semantic information. Such a decreased signal-to-noise ratio has been related to a decreased dopaminer- gic modulation (Servan-Schreiber et al 1990; Cohen and Servan- Schreiber 1992, 1993), which we recently were able to confirm directly in a study on the effects of L-dopa on semantic and indirect semantic priming (Kischka et al 1995)
Hughes, J. R. (1996). A Review of the Usefulness of the Standard EEG in Psychiatry. Clinical Eeg And Neuroscience
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/155005949602700106
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“The goal of this paper is to draw conclusions about the usefulness of the standard EEG in psychiatry. In general, two thirds of psychiatric referrals for an EEG are expected to provide useful information. The emphasis in schizophrenia is placed on left-sided abnormalities, especially on the left temporal area. In mood disorders the emphasis is on right-sided foci, in addition to the controversial 6/sec spike and wave complexes, small sharp spikes and positive spikes. In the acute stage of alcoholism, a relationship is seen between the degree of intoxication and the amount of slow activity, while in the chronic stage an increase in slow activity is seen, but another change is fast activity on the temporal areas. During withdrawal a low seizure threshold can be seen as irregular bilateral spike and wave complexes. During abstinence 2-4 yr may be required before slow wave sleep is normal in all regards. Among the organic mental syndromes, delirium shows slow activity, except in delirium tremens, which often is associated with a normal record with fast activity. In dementia the prevalence of EEG abnormalities is related to the degree of impairment. After five sessions of ECT diffuse slow waves are often seen. In other conditions, among developmental disorders about one half of autistic children show abnormalities and epileptiform activity is not uncommon. Mild nonspecific abnormalities are seen in about 40% of dyslexics and also in behavior disorders. Anxiety disorders include anorexia nervosa, showing abnormal background activity related to the effect of starvation on cerebral metabolism. In panic attacks paroxysmal activity can be seen. In borderline personality positive spikes have been (again) associated with impulsivity and 6/sec spike and wave complexes with interpersonal problems. Of the drugs of abuse psilocybin and phencyclidine are often associated with generalized epileptiform patterns and with marijuana the alpha shows a decreased frequency with increased amplitude. Typically, an increase in slow activity is seen with psychotropic drugs if there is a change in the level of awareness. Finally, distinctive personality traits are, at times, seen in temporal lobe epilepsy and the phenomenon of “forced normalization” may appear when seizures stop and psychotic symptoms appear.
1995
Stephenson, S. (1995). A win-win venture. Montefiore Medical Center and Local 1199 benefit from a partnership designed to upgrade employee skills. Restaurants Institutions
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.116
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“Context Researchers conducted extensive investigations of hallucinogens in the 1950s and 1960s. By the early 1970s, however, political and cultural pressures forced the cessation of all projects. This investigation reexamines a potentially promising clinical application of hallucinogens in the treatment of anxiety reactive to advanced-stage cancer. Objective To explore the safety and efficacy of psilocybin in patients with advanced-stage cancer and reactive anxiety. Design A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of patients with advanced-stage cancer and anxiety, with subjects acting as their own control, using a moderate dose (0.2 mg/kg) of psilocybin. Setting A clinical research unit within a large public sector academic medical center. Participants Twelve adults with advanced-stage cancer and anxiety. Main Outcome Measures In addition to monitoring safety and subjective experience before and during experimental treatment sessions, follow-up data including results from the Beck Depression Inventory, Profile of Mood States, and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory were collected unblinded for 6 months after treatment. Results Safe physiological and psychological responses were documented during treatment sessions. There were no clinically significant adverse events with psilocybin. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory trait anxiety subscale demonstrated a significant reduction in anxiety at 1 and 3 months after treatment. The Beck Depression Inventory revealed an improvement of mood that reached significance at 6 months; the Profile of Mood States identified mood improvement after treatment with psilocybin that approached but did not reach significance. Conclusions This study established the feasibility and safety of administering moderate doses of psilocybin to patients with advanced-stage cancer and anxiety. Some of the data revealed a positive trend toward improved mood and anxiety. These results support the need for more research in this long-neglected field. Trial Registration clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT00302744
Stijve,. (1995). Worldwide occurrence of psychoactive mushrooms – an update. Czech Mycology
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“An update is given on the recorded psilocybin – and ibotenic acid containing mushrooms on a worldwide scale. Many new psilocybian species have been discovered during the last 15 years, including representatives of the genera Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Inocybe, Gymnopilus and Pluteus, whereas only Amanita regalis was identified as a new and potent source of ibotenic acid. Recreational use of psychoactive mushrooms has spread from the USA to Europe, but here, like anywhere else, it remains a marginal phenomenon. The mushrooms commonly used are limited to a few species: in Europe it is almost invariably Psilocybe semilanceata, whereas in the USA Ps. cubensis, is widely used. Locally, Ps. stuntzii and Panaeolus subbalteatus have also gained some popularity. Misuse in South America or Asia is virtually unknown, in spite of the easy availability of psychoactive fungi. The trade in “magic mushrooms” e.g. Ps. cubensis and Copelandia cyanescens on the Thai island of Koh Samui, or in Indonesian Bali only caters to European and American tourists. Finally, young people and members of the drug-using subculture in Australia and New Zealand have also become aware of the psychoactive fungi growing in their respective countries
Dilley, P., & Guthrie, A. (1995). Building solutions: manmade marvel ushers in new age. Hac
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/nature06612.Identification
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“The psychosis associated with schizophrenia is characterized by alterations in sensory processing and perception1,2. Some antipsychotic drugs were identified by their high affinity for serotonin 5- HT2A receptors (2AR)3,4. Drugs that interact with metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR) also show potential for the treatment of schizophrenia5-7. The effects of hallucinogenic drugs, such as psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), require the 2AR8-10 and resemble some of the core symptoms of schizophrenia10-12. Here we show that the mGluR2 interacts via specific transmembrane helix domains with the 2AR, a member of an unrelated G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family, to form functional complexes in brain cortex. The 2AR/mGluR2 complex triggers unique cellular responses when targeted by hallucinogenic drugs, and activation of mGluR2 abolishes hallucinogen specific signalling and behavioural responses. In postmortem human brain from untreated schizophrenic subjects, the 2AR is up-regulated and the mGluR2 is down-regulated, a pattern that could predispose to psychosis. These regulatory changes suggest that the 2AR/mGluR2 complex may be involved in the altered cortical processes of schizophrenia, and represents a promising new target for the treatment of psychosis.
1994
Gartz, J., Allen, J. W., & Merlin, M. D. (1994). Ethnomycology, biochemistry, and cultivation of Psilocybe samuiensis Guzmán, Bandala and Allen, a new psychoactive fungus from Koh Samui, Thailand. Journal Of Ethnopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0378-8741(94)90006-X
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“Several specimens of Psilocybe and Copelandia species in Koh Samui, Thailand were recently collected for herbarium deposit and scientific study. This paper presents an ethnomycological and biochemical study of one of the species; P. samuiensis Guzmán, Bandala and Allen, a new psychoactive gill fungus reported from Thailand. Mycelium for the cultivation of P. samuiensis was obtained on 6% malt agar from the spores of a dried specimen. The growth of P. samuiensis was similar to that of P. tampanensis Guzmán and Pollock, but more rapid than the mycelium of P. semilanceata (Fr.: Sacc.) Kumm. Laboratory analyses indicates that the alkaloid content in cultured fruit bodies of P. samuiensis is of the same order of magnitude as that found in naturally occurring mushrooms of this species. HPLC analyses of both naturally occurring and in vitro cultivated fruit bodies of P. samuiensis revealed high concentrations of psilocybin and psilocin. Small amounts of baeocystin were also detected. Psilocybin levels varied from 0.23% up to 0.90%. The psilocybin content was highest in the caps. Psilocybin was also found in the cultured non-bluing mycelia of P. samuiensis and varied from 0.24% to 0.32% dry weight. The relative alkaloidal content of psilocybin, psilocin, and baeocystin found in P. samuiensis was similar to that measured in many other psychoactive fungi species, but completely different from that found in P. semilanceata. © 1994.
Brito, G. S. L. (1994). Food of the Gods: The search for the original tree of knowledge. A radical history of plants, drugs and human evolution. Cadernos de Saúde Pública
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1590/S0102-311X1994000300023
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“CONTENTS INTRODUCTION: A MANIFESTO FOR NEW THOUGHT ABOUT DRUGS xiii An Agonizing Reappraisal • An Archaic Revival • A New Manifesto • The Dominator Inheritance I. PARADISE 1 1. SHAMANISM: SETTING THE STAGE 3 Shamanism and Ordinary Religion • The Techniques of Ecstasy • A World Made of Language • Higher Dimensional Reality • A Shamanic Meme • Shamanism and the Lost Archaic World 2. THE MAGIC IN FOOD 14 A Shaggy Primate Story • You Are What You Eat Symbiosis • A New View of Human Evolution • The Real Missing Link • Three Big Steps for the Human Race • Steering Clear of Lamarck • Acquired Tastes 3. THE SEARCH FOR THE ORIGINAL TREE OF KNOWLEDGE 31 Hallucinogens as the Real Missing Link • Seeking the Tree of Knowledge • Weeding Out the Candidates • The Ur Plant What Are Plant Hallucinogens? – The Transcendent Other 4. PLANTS AND PRIMATES: POSTCARDS FROM THE STONED AGE 43 Human Uniqueness • Human Cognition • Transformations of Monkeys • The Prehistoric Emergence of Human Imagination Patterns and Understanding • Catalyzing Consciousness • The Flesh Made Word • Women and Language 5. HABIT AS CULTURE AND RELIGION 57 Ecstasy • Shamanism as Social Catalyst • Monotheism Pathological Monotheism • Archaic Sexuality • Ibogame Among the Fang • Contrasts in Sexual Politics 6. THE HIGH PLAINS OF EDEN 69 The Tassili Plateau • The Round Head Civilization • Paradise Found? • A Missing Link Culture • African Genesis • Qatal Huyuk • The Crucial Difference • The Vegetable Mind Gaian Holism II. PARADISE LOST 95 7. SEARCHING FOR SOMA: THE GOLDEN VEDIC ENIGMA 97 Contacting the Mind Behind Nature • Soma-What Is It? Haoma and Zoroaster • Haoma and Harmaline • The Wassons’ Amanita Theory • Objections to Fly Agaric • Wasson: His Contradictions and Other Fungal Candidates for Soma • Peganum Harmala as Soma • Soma as Male Moon God • Soma and Cattle • Wasson’s Doubts • A More Plausible Argument • The Indo-Europeans 8. TWILIGHT IN EDEN: MINOAN CRETE AND THE ELEUSINIAN MYSTERY 121 Abandonment of the Mystery • The Fall of Qatal Hiiyuk and the Age of Kingship • Minoan Mushroom Fantasies • The Myth of Glaukos • Honey and Opium • The Dionysus Connection • The Mystery at Eleusis • A Psychedelic Mystery? • The Ergotized Beer Theory • Graves’s Psilocybin Theory • A Historical Watershed 9. ALCOHOL AND THE ALCHEMY OF SPIRIT 138 Nostalgia for Paradise • Alcohol and Honey • Wine and Woman • Natural and Synthetic Drugs • Alchemy and Alcohol • Alcohol as Scourge • Alcohol and the Feminine Sexual Stereotypes and Alcohol 10. THE BALLAD OF THE DREAMING WEAVERS: CANNABIS AND CULTURE 150 Hashish • The Scythians • India and China • Cannabis as a Cultural Style • Classical Cannabis • Cannabis and the Language of Story • Orientomania and Cannabis in Europe Cannabis and Nineteenth-Century America • Evolving Drug Attitudes • Fitz Hugh Ludlow • Cannabis in the Twentieth Century III. HELL 167 11. COMPLACENCIES OF THE PEIGNOIR: SUGAR, COFFEE, TEA, AND CHOCOLATE 169 Broadening Our Taste • Life without Spice • Enter Sugar Sugar as Addiction • Sugar and Slavery • Sugar and the Dominator Style • The Drugs of Gentility • Coffee and Tea: New Alternatives to Alcohol • Tea Brews a Revolution • Exploitation Cycles • Coffee • Contra Coffee • Chocolate 12. SMOKE GETS IN YOUR EYES: OPIUM AND TOBACCO 188 Paradoxical Attitudes • Smoking Introduced to Europe • The Ancient Lure of Opium • Alchemical Opium • Tobacco Redux • Shamanic Tobaccos • Tobacco as Quack Medicine Contra Tobacco • Tobacco Triumphant • The Opium Wars • Opium and Cultural Style: De Quincey • The Beginning of Psychopharmacology 13. SYNTHETICS: HEROIN, COCAINE, AND TELEVISION 207 Hard Narcotics • Cocaine: The Horror of the Whiteness • Pro Cocaine • Modern Antidrug Hysteria • Drugs and Governments • Drugs and International Intelligence • Electronic Drugs • The Hidden Persuader IV. PARADISE REGAINED? 221 14. A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHEDELICS 223 The New World Hallucinogens • Ayahuasca • The Father of Psychopharmacology • The Pleasures of Mescaline • A Modern Renaissance • Whispers of a New World Mushroom • The Invention of LSD – Pandora’s Box Flung Open – LSD and the Psychedelic Sixties • Richard Schultes and the Plant Hallucinogens • Leary at Harvard • Psilocybin: Psychedelics in the Seventies • Psychedelic Implications • Public Awareness of the Problem 15. ANTICIPATING THE ARCHAIC PARADISE 246 Real World Options • The Case for Hallucinogenic Tryptamines • How Does It Feel? • Facing the Answer Consider the Octopus • Art and the Revolution Consciousness Expansion • The Drug War • Hyperspace and Human Freedom • What Is New Here • The DMT Experience • Hyperspace and the Law • Meetings with a Remarkable Overmind • Recovering Our Origins • The Fundamentalist Contribution • The Legalization Issue A Modest Proposal EPILOGUE: LOOKING OUTWARD AND INWARD TO A SEA OF STARS 271 If Not Us, Who? If Not Now, When? • Finding the Way Out From the Grasslands to the Starship • We Await Ourselves within the Vision
1993
Gurevich, L. S. (1993). Indole derivatives in certain Panaeolus species from East Europe and Siberia. Mycological Research
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0953-7562(09)80249-9
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“Five species of Panaeolus were analysed by thin-layer chromatography for the presence of the indole psychotomimetics psilocybin, psilocin and baeocystin, some tryptophan derivatives and urea. P. ater, P. rickenii, P. papilionaceous, P. sphinctrinus did not contain psilocybin and its hallucinogenic derivatives. Psilocybin accompanied by baeocystin was found only in two samples of P. subbalteatus. Analysis revealed a characteristic distribution of the investigated substances: psilocybin, baeocystin, serotonin and urea were mostly concentrated in pilei of basidiomes, while the concentration of 5-hydroxytryptophan was higher in stipes. Psilocin was not detected. The highest concentration of psilocybin was found among the mushrooms of smaller weight (for basidiomes from the same habitat). All the species contained serotonin and urea. Possible physiological roles of the compounds is briefly discussed. © 1993, British Mycological Society. All rights reserved.
STIJVE, T., & DEMEIJER, A. A. R. (1993). Macromycetes From the State of Parana, Brazil .4. the Psychoactive Species. Arquivos De Biologia E Tecnologia
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“Several macromycetes from the Brazilian state of Parana suspected or reported in literature to contain psilocin and other psychoactive compounds were analysed. Appreciable amounts of psilocin and psilocybin were readily determined in Psilocybe caeruleoannulata, Ps. caerulescens, Ps. hoogshagenii, Ps. cf. subyungensis and Ps. uruguayensis. So far, these taxa were suspected to be hallucinogenic, mainly because of their blueing tissues, and this presumption has now been corroborated by chemical data. The presence of the hallucinogens in Ps. cubensis, Ps. zapotecorum and Panaeolus subbalteatus as reported in literature for collections from elsewhere was amply confirmed.Upon screening 11 Pluteus spp, Pl. glaucus Sing. and a closely related taxon were found to contain psilocin and psilocybin in concentrations high enough to class them as psychoactive species. Four collections of Amanita muscaria contained muscimol (the active principle) at levels comparable to those measured in the European species. Taxonomic notes on the psychoactive Psilocybe and Pluteus taxa are included.
Hery, F., & Hamon, M. (1993). [Neuroleptics and serotonin]. L’encéphale
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“To date, there is no doubt that dopamine plays a key role in the behavioural disorders associated with schizophrenia. However, dopamine is not the only neurotransmitter involved in this syndrome, as it interacts with many neuronal systems in brain. Of special interest is the interaction between dopaminergic and serotoninergic systems with evidence from pharmacological data in animals that each of these systems may exert an inhibitory influence on the other. Furthermore, the psychotomimetic effects of drugs affecting serotoninergic neurotransmission such as LSD, psilocybin, N,N-dimethyltryptamine and 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine also contributed to draw attention onto a possible involvement of serotoninergic systems in at least some of the disorders typical of schizophrenia. This idea received strong support from recent studies on the multiple receptors for serotonin in the central nervous system. These studies not only demonstrate the existence of several classes of serotonin receptors called 5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, 5-HT1C, 5-HT1D, 5-HT2, 5-HT3 and 5-HT4, but led also to the development of novel agonists and antagonists for the stimulation or blockade of each of them. Pharmacological investigations with these ligands revealed that serotonin is probably involved in the behavioural disorders associated with schizophrenia through its binding to three distinct classes of receptors: 5-HT1A, 5-HT2 (or the closely related class 5-HT1C) and 5-HT3.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
RIEDLINGER, T. J. (1993). {WASSON} {ALTERNATIVE} {CANDIDATES} {FOR} {SOMA}. Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs
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“Citing recently published challenges to R. Gordon Wasson’s identification of Vedic soma as the psychoactive mushroom Amanita muscaria (fly-agaric), this article reviews unpublished letters by Wasson in which he considered and rejected other psychoactive plants as candidates, including the mint Lagochilus inebrians, Convolvulaceae (morning glory) seeds, the fungal parasite Claviceps purpurea (ergot), and especially the psilocybin mushroom Stropharia cubensis, known also as Psilocybe cubensis. Apart from their historical interest, these letters-from the Tina and Gordon Wasson Ethnomycological Collection at the Harvard Botanical Museum-demonstrate that Wasson remained open to refinements of his theory.
Köppel, C. (1993). Clinical symptomatology and management of mushroom poisoning. Toxicon
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(93)90337-I
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“Among poisonous mushrooms, a small number may cause serious intoxication and even fatalities in man. Humans may become symptomatic after a mushroom meal for rather different reasons: (1) ingestion of mushrooms containing toxins, (2) large amounts of mushrooms may be hard to digest, (3) immunological reactions to mushroom-derived antigens, (4) ingestion of mushrooms causing ethanol intolerance, and (5) vegetative symptoms may occur whenever a patient realizes that there might be a possibility of ingestion of a toxic mushroom after a mushroom meal. Based on the classes of toxins and their clinical symptoms, seven different types of mushroom poisoning can be distinguished: (1) phalloides, (2) orellanus, (3) gyromitra, (4) muscarine, (5) pantherina, (6) psilocybin, and (7) gastrointestinal mushroom syndrome. Two other entities of adverse reactions to mushrooms are (8) coprinus and (9) paxillus syndrome. Phalloides, orellanus, gyromitra and paxillus syndrome may lead to serious poisoning, which generally requires treatment of the patient in an intensive care unit. Diagnosis of mushroom poisoning is primarily based on anamnestic data, identification of mushrooms from leftovers of the mushroom meal, spore analysis, and/or chemical analysis. Therapeutic strategies include primary detoxification by induced emesis, gastric lavage and activated charcoal, secondary detoxification, symptomatic treatment and rarely specific antidotes. Owing to progressing fulminant hepatic failure, lethality associated with phalloides syndrome is still high (5-20%). Basic treatment includes administration of silibinin and penicillin G, although controlled studies on its therapeutic efficacy are still lacking. In serious phalloides syndrome, orthotopic liver transplantation has to be considered. Fortunately, the prognosis in most other mushroom poisonings is excellent. © 1993.
Li, F., Jin, Y., Pei, F., & Wang, F. (1993). Ring???opening polymerization of tetrahydrofuran with rare earth???contained catalysts. Journal Of Applied Polymer Science
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/app.1993.070501120
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“Introduction: The use of illicit drugs by students and the possible psychological repercussions in this population of young adults is an important public health issue. While some data in the literature suggest a relationship between cannabis and the occurrence of mental health disorders, and in particular psychotic illnesses, epidemiologic surveys have shown that cannabis is the most consumed illicit drug in France. Aim of the study: To carry out a quantitative and qualitative epidemiological investigation of substance use within a student population seen during their mandatory preventive health visit at the University medical facility. Method: Students were asked to take part in an investigation of their substance consumption and their individual experiences with cannabis in particular. Personality autoquestionnaires were performed and the psychotomimetic effects of cannabis were investigated with substance use within a student population seen during their mandatory preventive health visit at the University medical facility. Results: A total of 3 807 students took part in the survey with a response rate of approximately 50%. Preliminary results relating to a subsample of this study are presented here (n = 880, mean age 20 years, 65% women). 44% of the students consumed cannabis at least once in their life. The prevalence of regular consumption in students (at least once a week) was of 18%, 11% had periods of daily or close to daily consumptions, and 13% used cannabis in the last month. For each of the drugs cocaine, ecstasy (MDMA), and mushrooms (psilocybin) the prevalence of experimentation (at least once) was 5% for cocaine, 4% for ecstasy and mushrooms, and for LSD the rate was 1,5%. Other evaluated substances had a prevalence of consumption lower than 1%. For the first cannabis consumptions, a majority of students state to felt « pleasant » effects : relaxation (71%) and euphoria (53%). 13% state to have felt effects of anxiety or sadness. 25% admit having had difficulties of expression, 24% memory deficits, 35% trouble with coordination or balance and 39% difficulties of concentration. Approximately 16% had impressions of depersonalization and derealization. Lastly, some experienced « psychotic-like » effects such as visual (10%) and auditory (6%) hallucinations, as well as referential ideas (16%), mistrust or feelings of persecution (11%). 26% of the student sample had felt at least one of these last four « psychotic-like » effects. Discussion: The results are consistent with the idea that the impact of cannabis consumption is highly variable among different consumers. Implications for prevention strategies are discussed such as educational interventions based on recognition and motivation for change. © L’Encéphale, 2009.
1992
Lassen, J. F., Lassen, N. F., & Skov, J. (1992). [Consumption of psilocybin-containing hallucinogenic mushrooms by young people]. Ugeskrift For Laeger
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“The aim of this questionnaire survey was to investigate the extent of hallucinogenic mushroom consumption among students from a high school in the county of Aarhus, Denmark and among students at the University of Aarhus and students from the Danish school of journalism in Aarhus, Denmark. 3% of the high school students had used psilocybine-containing mushrooms as a hallucinogen. Only 1% had experience with LSD. Of the students at the University of Aarhus, and students from the Danish school of journalism in Aarhus, 333 persons (83%) returned the anonymous questionnaire. 9% had experience with hallucinogenic psilocybine containing mushrooms while only 2% had LSD experience. The use of hallucinogenic mushrooms was surprisingly high. This suggest that mushrooms are the most commonly used hallucinogenic substance in Denmark and that the use has exceeded that of LSD. Compared to non-users mushrooms users had significant more friends with mushroom experience. Furthermore, the study shows that the intention to use mushroom is commoner in persons who have friends with HPS experience. We find that the use of mushroom takes place in minor groups known to each other. Compared to non-users, mushroom-users are significant more experienced with marijuana and other substances. Unfortunately, our data do not permit us to show whether mushroom users are more inclined to try other drugs or whether persons with a high drug experience use mushrooms as well. Further investigation on the subject is recommended.
1991
Doblin, R. (1991). Pahnke’s “Good Friday Experiment”: a long-term follow-up and methodological critique. Journal Of Transpersonal Psychology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0269881108094300
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“To investigate the potential of psychedelic drugs to facilitate mystical experience, W. Pahnke (1963) administered psilocybin or placebo to 20 White male Protestant divinity students before Good Friday services. The present study critiques the preparation phase of the experiment, Pahnke’s questionnaire for measuring mystical experience, and completeness of his reporting. Between 1986 and 1989, the present author recorded personal interviews with 16 of the original Ss. All 16 were readministered the 100-item questionnaire used for 6-mo follow-up in the original experiment. The original experiment found that psilocybin Ss who experienced a mystical experience would, after 6 mo, report a substantial amount of positive, and virtually no negative, persisting changes in attitude and behavior. The present study further supports these findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2008 APA, all rights reserved)
1990
Lassen, J. F., Ravn, H. B., & Lassen, S. F. (1990). [Hallucinogenic psilocybine containing mushrooms. Toxins contained in Danish wild mushrooms]. Ugeskrift For Laeger
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“A number of the wild Danish mushrooms contain the hallucinogenic agent psilocybin which resembles LSD in many ways. The commonest of these are the “liberty cap” or “magic mushrooms” (Psilocybe semilanceata). On the basis of experience from USA and western Europa, increase in employment of this mushrooms as a hallucinogenic intoxicant may be anticipated in Denmark. The history, epidemiology, botany and pharmacology of the mushroom are reviewed. Clinical pictures and treatment are described for: 1) Acute poisoning with psilocybin-containing fungi, 2) Late sequelae of consumption of psilocybin-containing fungi and 3) Poisoning with more poisonous fungi on account of incorrect identification. General practitioners, duty roster doctors, doctors in casualty departments and in acute psychiatric departments should be aware of these problems. Intoxication with psilocybin may be confused with panic anxiety or euphoria in persons with mydriasis and other sympathomimetic symptoms. The possibility of more serious mushroom poisoning on account of incorrect identification should be borne in mind.
Kysilka, R., & Wurst, M. (1990). A novel extraction procedure for Psilocybin and psilocin determination in mushroom samples. Planta Medica
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1055/s-2006-960970
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“Activation of CD4(+) T cells is governed by interplay between stimulatory and inhibitory receptors; predominance of stimulatory signals favors autoimmune reactions. In patients with rheumatoid arthritis, expression of the critical costimulatory molecule, CD28, is frequently lost. Instead, CD4(+)CD28(null) T cells express killer immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIRs) with a preferential expression of the stimulatory receptor, CD158j. The frequency of CD4(+)CD28(null) T cells in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) correlates with the risk for more severe disease. Moreover, the KIR2DS2 gene, which encodes for CD158j, is a genetic risk factor for rheumatoid vasculitis. CD158j signals through the adaptor molecule, KARAP/DAP12, to positively regulate cytotoxic activity in NK cells. However, the majority of CD4(+)CD28(null) T cell clones lacked the expression of KARAP/DAP12. Despite the absence of KARAP/DAP12, CD158j was functional and augmented interferon-gamma production after T cell receptor stimulation. Cross-linking of CD158j resulted in selective phosphorylation of c-Jun NH(2)-terminal protein kinase (JNK) and its upstream kinase, MKK4 that led to the expression of ATF-2 and c-Jun, all in the absence of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 phosphorylation. Mutation of the lysine residue within the transmembrane domain of CD158j abolished JNK activation, suggesting that an alternate adaptor molecule was being used. CD4(+)CD28(null) T cells expressed DAP10 and inhibition of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, which acts downstream of DAP10, inhibited JNK activation; however, no interaction of DAP10 with CD158j could be detected. Our data suggest that CD158j in T cells functions as a costimulatory molecule through the JNK pathway independent of KARAP/DAP12 and DAP10. Costimulation by CD158j may contribute to the autoreactivity of CD4(+)CD28(null) T cells in RA.
Buckholtz, N. S., Zhou, D., Freedman, D. X., & Potter, W. Z. (1990). Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) administration selectively downregulates serotonin₂ receptors in rat brain. Neuropsychopharmacology
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“A dosage regimen of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) that reliably produces behavioral tolerance in rats was evaluated for effects on neurotransmitter receptor binding in rat brain using a variety of radioligands selective for amine receptor subtypes. Daily administration of LSD [130 micrograms/kg (0.27 mumol/kg) intraperitoneally (IP)] for 5 days produced a decrease in serotonin2 (5-hydroxytryptamine2, 5-HT2) binding in cortex (measured 24 hours after the last drug administration) but did not affect binding to other receptor systems (5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, beta-adrenergic, alpha 1- or alpha 2-adrenergic, D2-dopaminergic) or to a recognition site for 5-HT uptake. The decrease was evident within 3 days of LSD administration but was not demonstrable after the first LSD dose. Following 5 days of LSD administration the decrease was still present 48 hours, but not 96 hours, after the last administration. The indole hallucinogen psilocybin [1.0 mg/kg (3.5 mumol/kg) for 8 days] also produced a significant decrease in 5HT2 binding, but neither the nonhallucinogenic analog bromo-LSD [1.3 mg/kg (2.4 mumol/kg) for 5 days] nor mescaline [10 mg/kg (40.3 mumol/kg) for 5 or 10 days] affected 5-HT2 binding. These observations suggest that LSD and other indole hallucinogens may act as 5-HT2 agonists at postsynaptic 5-HT2 receptors. Decreased 5-HT2 binding strikingly parallels the development and loss of behavioral tolerance seen with repeated LSD administration, but the decreased binding per se cannot explain the gamut of behavioral tolerance and cross-tolerance phenomena among the indole and phenylethylamine hallucinogens.
1989
Gartz, J. (1989). Occurrence of psilocybin, psilocin and baeocystin in Gymnopilus purpuratus. Persoonia
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1055/s-2006-962710
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“Using HPLC and TLC, psilocybin and baeocystin but not psilocin were found in extracts of dried fruit bodies of PLUTEUS SALICINUS. Caps contain more psilocybin than stems. The amount of psilocybin varies and was as high as 1.57% in the caps. Urea was also detected. This substance is virtually exclusively localized in the caps. Baeocystin and tryptophan were also found only in the caps. There was a correlation between the content of psilocybin and that of urea.
Gartz, J., & Moller, G. K. (1989). Analysis and Cultivation of Fruit Bodies and Mycelia of Psilocybe bohemica. Biochemie Und Physiologie Der Pflanzen
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0015-3796(89)80023-X
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“The analysis of fruit bodies of Psilocybe bohemica from a single location revealed psilocybin, baeocystin and in some cases psilocin. Psilocybin levels varied from 0.11 % up to 1.34 % by dry weight. The content of baeocystin and psilocybin was highest in the caps of the mushrooms. Psilocybin was also found to be contained in the cultured mycelia of this species. No other alkaloids were detected in the mycelial extracts. A rhizomorphic to closely linear growth of the blueing mycelia was observed on soaked unsterilized cardboard. For the first time, the fruiting of Psilocybe bohemica could be demonstrated.
Braunschweig, W., Gerhards, R., Kirschfink, F. J., Martyn, H. U., Fischer, H. M., Hartmann, H., et al. (1989). PRODUCTION AND DECAY OF CHARMED MESONS IN e+ e- ANNIHILATION AT s**(1/2) > 28-GeV. Zeitschrift Für Physik C Particles And Fields
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s00213-011-2358-5
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“RATIONALE: This dose-effect study extends previous observations showing\nthat psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having persisting\npositive effects on attitudes, mood, and behavior. OBJECTIVES: This\ndouble-blind study evaluated psilocybin (0, 5, 10, 20, 30 mg/70 kg,\np.o.) administered under supportive conditions. METHODS: Participants\nwere 18 adults (17 hallucinogen-naïve). Five 8-h sessions were\nconducted individually for each participant at 1-month intervals.\nParticipants were randomized to receive the four active doses in\neither ascending or descending order (nine participants each). Placebo\nwas scheduled quasi-randomly. During sessions, volunteers used eyeshades\nand were instructed to direct their attention inward. Volunteers\ncompleted questionnaires assessing effects immediately after and\n1 month after each session, and at 14 months follow-up. RESULTS:\nPsilocybin produced acute perceptual and subjective effects including,\nat 20 and/or 30 mg/70 kg, extreme anxiety/fear (39% of volunteers)\nand/or mystical-type experience (72% of volunteers). One month after\nsessions at the two highest doses, volunteers rated the psilocybin\nexperience as having substantial personal and spiritual significance,\nand attributed to the experience sustained positive changes in attitudes,\nmood, and behavior, with the ascending dose sequence showing greater\npositive effects. At 14 months, ratings were undiminished and were\nconsistent with changes rated by community observers. Both the acute\nand persisting effects of psilocybin were generally a monotonically\nincreasing function of dose, with the lowest dose showing significant\neffects. CONCLUSIONS: Under supportive conditions, 20 and 30 mg/70 kg\npsilocybin occasioned mystical-type experiences having persisting\npositive effects on attitudes, mood, and behavior. Implications for\ntherapeutic trials are discussed.
1988
Taylor, P. J. (1988). Substance abuse: Pharmacologic and developmental perspectives. Substance abuse: Pharmacologic and developmental perspectives.
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“(from the jacket) Herein the author discusses theories of drug abuse, lists cues for abuse identification, details the central and peripheral nervous systems, and presents the physical and psychological effects of alcohol abuse. Also covered are: CNS stimulants with information on amphetamines, cocaine, crack, nicotine, and caffeine; opioids including morphine, codeine, heroin, and methadone; and halluncinogens such as LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, DMT, MDA, PCP, and cannabis. Rounding out this valuable text is a discussion of psychopharmacology and a short-term, multimodal approach for the treatment of chemically dependent individuals. Through this approach, the substance abuser learns to minimize undesirable behavior and maximize desirable behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved) (jacket)
Dream, T. A. (1988). Storming Heaven: LSD and the American Dream. Library
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/1040213032000151539
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“Prologue: An Afternoon In The Sixties …………………………….1 Book One: The Door In The Wall …………………………………8 1. A Bike Ride In Basle ………………………………………..8 2. The Cinderella Science……………………………………..15 3. Laboratory Madness ……………………………………….23 4. Intuition And Intellect………………………………………28 5. The Door in the Wall……………………………………….38 6. Out In The Noonday Sun…………………………………….40 7. The Other World …………………………………………49 8. Noises Offstage………………………………………….63 Book Two: Pushing The Envelope……………………………….73 9. Slouching Toward Bethlehem………………………………….73 10. Starving, Hysterical, Naked ………………………………….81 11. Wild Geese ……………………………………………98 12. The Harvard Psilocybin Project ………………………………. 110 13. What Happened At Harvard ………………………………… 128 14. The Politics of Consciousness ……………………………….. 137 15. The Fifth Freedom……………………………………… 148 16. Horse Latitudes……………………………………….. 158 17. Pushing the Envelope……………………………………. 166 18. The Boy Most Likely To Succeed……………………………… 176 19. Turn and Face the Strange ………………………………… 188 20. In The Zone………………………………………….. 202 21. Psychotic Reaction……………………………………… 217 Book Three: The Pure Void …………………………………..230 22. The Counterculture……………………………………… 230 23. The Alchemist ………………………………………… 244 24. The Next Step………………………………………… 252 25. It Came From Inner Space ………………………………… 265 26. Too Many Gurus ……………………………………….. 275 Epilogue: An Afternoon In The Eighties…………………………..285 Bibliography……………………………………………….i
Callahan, P. M., & Appel, J. B. (1988). Differences in the stimulus properties of 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine and 3,4- methylenedioxymethamphetamine in animals trained to discriminate hallucinogens from saline. The Journal Of Pharmacology And Experimental Therapeutics
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“The stimulus properties of 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and several related compounds were compared to those of (+)-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and mescaline (3,4,5-trimethoxyphenylethylamine) in a two-lever, water-reinforced, drug discrimination task. In animals trained to discriminate LSD (0.08 mg/kg) from saline (n = 8), LSD-like responding occurred during substitution (generalization) tests with sufficiently high doses of (+/- )-2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine, LSD, mescaline, psilocybin and (-)-MDA; saline appropriate responding occurred after (+)-MDA and both (+)- and (+)- and (-)-MDMA. In animals trained to discriminate mescaline (10 mg/kg; n = 8), (-)-MDA, (+)-MDA, (-)-MDMA and (+)-MDMA as well as (+/- )-2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine, LSD, mescaline and psilocybin mimicked the training drug. Neither (+)-amphetamine nor cocaine produced mescaline-like responding; fenfluramine substituted partially for mescaline but not LSD. Because all of the phenylisopropylamine enantiomers mimicked the potent hallucinogen mescaline (10 mg/kg), these results do not support suggestions that similarities in the behavioral effects of “designer” drugs such as MDA and MDMA to those of hallucinogens are limited to (-)-MDA. They also indicate that, although LSD and mescaline may be pharmacologically similar (in other assays), these compounds do not have identical stimulus properties.
1987
Gartz, J. (1987). VORKOMMEN VON PSILOCYBIN UND BAEOCYSTIN IN FRUCHTKORPERN VON PLUTEUS SALICINUS. Planta Medica
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1055/s-2006-962710
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Zilker, T. (1987). [Diagnosis and therapy of mushroom poisoning (1)]. Leber, Magen, Darm
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“The diagnosis of mushroom poisoning is based on three principles: the description of the mushroom, the toxicological analysis of the mushroom and, most important, the mushroom syndrome. Mushroom poisoning can be classified according to the lag time between the meal and the onset of symptoms. In this paper we will discuss mushroom poisoning with short and intermediate lag time. With short lag time and a predominance of CNS signs and symptoms the diagnosis is either fly-agaric, pantherina or psilocybin syndrome. Parasympathomimetic signs and symptoms indicate the muscarine syndrome. If–with a lag period of up to four hours–vomiting and diarrhea are predominant, we will find a poisoning with one of the many mushrooms which lead to gastroenteritis. Gastroenteritis combined with hemolysis points to a paxillus syndrome.
Ohenoja, E., Jokiranta, J., Makinen, T., Kaikkonen, A., & Airaksinen, M. M. (1987). The occurrence of psilocybin and psilocin in finnish fungi. Journal Of Natural Products
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1021/np50052a030
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“Systemic B-cell depletion and clinical remission of the systemic effects of cryoglobulins have been achieved in hepatitis C virus-positive immunocompetent patients with rituximab, a human/mouse chimeric monoclonal antibody that specifically reacts with the CD20 antigen. Thus, this provides a rationale for the use of rituximab for type III cryoglobulin-related graft dysfunction in renal-transplant patients. Seven patients, of whom five were hepatitis C positive, developed renal function impairment long after transplantation, as well as de novo nephrotic syndrome (n = 5), severe hypertension (n = 5), nephritic syndrome (n = 1), and increased serum creatinine (n = 1). This type III cryoglobulinemia was associated with membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis and with thrombi within the glomeruli in one case. In addition to their baseline standard immunosuppressive medications, the patients were given weekly rituximab infusions: 375 mg/m(2) for 2 weeks in four cases, for 3 weeks in one case, and for 4 weeks in two cases. This treatment resulted in a dramatic improvement in all renal parameters, particularly a sustained remission of nephrotic syndrome in three cases, the disappearance of nephritic syndrome in one patient, and improved nephrotic syndrome in two cases, as well as a sustained clearance of cryoglobulins in six cases. However, it also resulted in severe infectious complications in two cases. We concluded that rituximab therapy is effective in cryoglobulin-related renal dysfunction in renal transplant patients but, due to chronic immunosuppression, this may be achieved at the expense of infectious complications.
Glassow, M. A. (1987). The Occurrence of Red Abalone Shells in Northern Channel Island Middens: Implications for Climatic Reconstruction. Third California Islands Symposium
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“Interesting discoveries have been made in the West, during the past fifteen years, of plant sources and their chemical constituents responsible for producing hallu-cinogenic effects in man. The major botanical sources investigated for these pur-poses constitute one or more members of the families Legurninosae, Malpighiaceae, Zygophyllaceae, Agaricaceae, Myristicaceae, Gvamineae, and Convolvulaceae. Several articles and reviews have appeared in the literature regarding the hallu-cinogenic plants and their constituents (M a r d e r o s i a n , 1967). In these surveys, one or more of the following indolic bases, N,N-dimethyltryptamine, 5-methoxy-N-methyltryptamine, 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine, bufotenine, harmine, harmaline, (+)-tetrahydroharmine, lysergic acid amides, psilocin, and psilocybin have been reported as the active constituents of the drug plants. These compounds could be conveniently classified into three broad structural types, e. g., (I) un-substituted and 4-/5-oxygenated indole-3-alkylamines, (11) aromatic p-carbolines, and (111) tetrahydro-p-carbolines. Among the first type, 5-substituted and unsub-stituted bases received special attention due to their toxicological effects in two instances. First, there were reports of cases of a disease in Australian sheep called a< staggers”, the sheep were pastured largely on a perennial grass, Phalaris tubero-sa L. (G a 11 a g h e r et al., 1964). Investigation of this and related Phalaris species
1986
Semerdzieva, M., Wurst, M., Koza, T., & Gartz, J. (1986). Psilocybin in fruiting-bodies of Inocybe aeruginascens. Planta Medica
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“Psilocybin was quantitatively determined in methanolic extracts of dried fruiting-bodies of the basidiomycete INOCYBE AERUGINAS-cens and its content was compared with that in PSILOCYBE BOHEMICA and P. SEMILANCEATA. By menas of HPLC it was found that the content of psilocybin in INOCYBE AERUGINASCENS is lower than in PSILOCYBE species. Similarly to PSILOCYBE, the content of psilocybin in INOCYBE decreased during storage of dried fruiting-bodies. The psilocybin content Ialso depends on the origin of the fruiting-bodies.
1985
Seeger, R. (1985). PSILOCYBIN. Deutsche Apotheker Zeitung
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/02791072.1980.10471557
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Stijve, T., & Kuyper, T. (1985). Occurrence of Psilocybin in Various Higher Fungi from Several European Countries. Planta Medica
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1055/s-2007-969526
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“Using high performance liquid and thin-layer chromatographic methods more than 100 species of fungi from Europe belonging to 18 genera were analysed for the hallucinogenic compound psilocybin and for some related tryptamine derivatives. Psilocybin, psilocin and/or baeocystin were found in 3 PSILOCYBE 1 PANAEOLUS, 5 INOCYBES and one PLUTEUS. PSILOCYBE SEMILANCEATA and PANAEOLUS SUBBALTEATUS proved to be the only psilocybin-containing fungi that can be gathered in Middle and Northern Europe in sufficient quantities to permit abuse.
1984
Badham, E. R. (1984). Ethnobotany of psilocybin mushrooms, especially Psilocybe cubensis. Journal Of Ethnopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0378-8741(84)90007-2
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Jokiranta, J., Mustola, S., Ohenoja, E., & Airaksinen, M. (1984). Psilocybin in Finnish Psilocybe semilanceata. Planta Medica
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1055/s-2007-969703
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“The use of a hallucinogenic mushroom, PSILOCYBE SEMILANCEATA, has been occasionally reported in Finland, where the species is widely distributed. We have determined, by HPLC, the content of psilocybin and psilocin in P. SEMILANCEATA samples collected from different parts of Finland; the psilocybin content was found to be high (0.62-2.37%, mean 1.42% of dry weight), some samples also contained low concentrations (0.01-0.02% dry weight) of psilocin.
1982
Beug, M. W., & Bigwood, J. (1982). Psilocybin and psilocin levels in twenty species from seven genera of wild mushrooms in the Pacific Northwest, U.S.A. Journal Of Ethnopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0378-8741(82)90013-7
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“The analysis of twenty species from seven genera of Pacific Northwest mushrooms revealed psilocybin (and in some cases psilocin as well) in seven species from three genera. The species found to contain psilocybin (and psilocin) varied from one collection to another by more than a factor of seven in amount present. Total psilocybin and psilocin levels in species known to be in use for recreational and entheogenic purposes varied from 0.1% by dry weight up to a high of nearly 2% by dry weight. © 1982.
Christiansen, A. L., Rasmussen, K. E., & Hoiland, K. (1982). Psilocybe semilanceata as a narcotic. Tidsskrift For Den Norske Laegeforening
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“Norwegian Psilocybe semilanceata must be regarded as a potent narcotic. The dried mushrooms were found to contain 0.2-2.0 psilocybin. P. semilanceata grows on grassy sites in most parts of Norway from the middle of August to the middle of October. Several toxic mushroom species can easily be mistaken for P. semilanceata, and these species are discussed. The public must be warned against the misuse of P. semilanceata in Norway.
Bigwood, J., & Beug, M. W. (1982). Variation of psilocybin and psilocin levels with repeated flushes (harvests) of mature sporocarps of Psilocybe cubensis (earle) singer. Journal Of Ethnopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0378-8741(82)90014-9
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“Analysis of Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer grown in controlled culture showed that the level of psilocin was generally zero in the first (or sometimes even the second) fruiting of the mushroom from a given culture and that the level reached a maximum by the fourth flush. The level of psilocybin, which was nearly always at least twice the level of psilocin, showed no upward or downward trend as fruiting progressed, but was variable over a factor of four. Samples obtained from outside sources had psilocybin levels varying by over a factor of ten from one collection to the next. © 1982.
Peden, N. R., Pringle, S. D., & Crooks, J. (1982). The Problem of Psilocybin Mushroom Abuse. Human & Experimental Toxicology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/096032718200100408
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“1 We have reviewed the clinical features and management of 44 consecutive patients presenting to hospital over a 5 week period during an outbreak of ingestion of psilocybin containing mushrooms.2 Patients presented to hospital usually because of dysphoric effects an average of 3.8 h after ingesting the mushrooms.3 Mydriasis was present in 40 patients but fewer than half showed other sympathomimetic features – tachycardia, hypertension or hyperreflexia.4 Twenty-three patients experienced nausea and vomiting.5 Distortions of perception chiefly visual were frequent as were paraesthesiae and feelings of depersonalization.6 The effects of the mushrooms were short-lived and had worn off within 12 h in all but one patient.7 Inducing emesis did not appear to hasten recovery from the effects of the mushrooms.
1981
Beug, M. W., & Bigwood, J. (1981). Quantitative analysis of psilocybin and psilocin and psilocybe baecystis (singer and smith) by high-performance liquid chromatography and by thin-layer chromatography. Journal Of Chromatography A
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0021-9673(00)88741-5
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“Rapid quantification of psilocybin and psilocin in extracts of wild mushrooms is accomplished by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with paire-ion reagents. Nine solvent systems and three solid supports are evaluated for their efficiency is separating psilocybin, psilocin and other components of crud mushroom extracts by thin-layer chromatography. © 1981.
Mohan, D., Mohandas, E., & Rajat, R. (1981). Chloroquine psychosis: a chemical psychosis?. Journal Of The National Medical Association
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“Psychotic states are mimicked by the use of many drugs including amphetamines, cannabis, lysergic acid diethylamide, psilocybin, mescaline, isoniazid, and L-dopa. A paranoid psychotic picture in a clear sensorium is characteristic of amphetamine psychosis. In developing countries, malaria among other diseases is a frequent indicator of chloroquine administration. The present communication reports a series of chloroquine-induced psychosis in a clear sensorium simulating affective illness, such as mania, mixed affective states, or depression. The psychosis disappeared after cessation of the drug, combined with or without the use of low dosage phenothiazines in excited patients. From our cases, two types of presentation of chloroquine psychosis could be seen: (1) psychic with clear sensorium, mood changes, alteration in motor activity, delusions, and hallucinations; and (2) psycho-organic with clouded sensorium, disorientation, and fleeting hallucinations. The precise nature of the mechanism of the psychosis is not clear because of the limited number of reported cases.
Paulsen, V. M. (1981). The Differential Control Of Adolescent Deviance. Dai
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“A survey of sixth to twelfth grade rural northwest adolescents was\nconducted to determine the extent of their drug use. Using classes\nas clusters, a probability-proportionate-to-size cluster sampling\nprocedure was employed. The 60% response rate resulted in 1500 usable\nquestionnaires. Students were asked about their use of cigarettes,\nbeer and/or wine, hard liquor, glue, tranquilizers, marijuana, hashish,\namphetamines, barbiturates, LSD and/or peyote, psilocybin, heroin\nand cocaine. They were also asked about seven minor delinquent actions.\nOther items in the questionnaire permitted a test of two theoretical\nexplanations of adolescent delinquency and drug use. A recursive\nmodel was constructed to test Hirschi’s theory of social control\nfor the delinquency and drug use of boys and girls. This theory explained\napproximately 30% of a boy’s delinquency and about 45% of his drug\nuse. Somewhat less than that was explained for a girl’s delinquency\nand drug use. Attachment to school is inferred to exert the greatest\nrelative effect on deviance, closely followed by the effect of delinquent\nvalues. A more precise replication of Hirschi’s theory that included\nmeasures of pro-legal beliefs, commitment and involvement elaborated\nbut did not further specify the theory. Many but not all hypotheses\nin the theory were confirmed in the several tests. A simple recursive\nmodel of social learning was constructed. The antecedent factors\nto adolescent drug use included parental drug use, parental norms\nabout adolescent drug use, an adolescent’s perceptions that drug\nuse is dangerous and peer drug use. The model, when tested for use\nof common drugs, explained 68% of a boy’s drug use and 60% of a girl’s.\nThe total estimated effect of peer drug use, the variable of greatest\nrelative importance, is inferred to outweigh the effect of parental\ndrug use. The other three antecedent factors in the model contributed\nabout two-thirds of the total explained variance. The model, when\ntested for adolescent use of cigarettes, beer and/or wine, hard liquor,\nall drugs and only uncommon drugs, explained somewhat less variance\nthan when tested for use of five common drugs combined into an index.\nA theory of differential control was formulated that permitted the\nintegration of variables from the theories of social control and\nsocial learning. This expanded model explained 74% of a boy’s drug\nuse, but appeared to be less tenable in accounting for a girl’s drug\nuse, explaining only 66% of the variance. A comparison of the total\neffects of the variables in the model, based on the unstandardized\ncoefficients, suggested that different processes are at work in the\netiology of deviance for girls and boys. It also appears that antecedents\nto a boy’s delinquency and drug use, but not a girl’s, are dissimilar.\nThis expanded model does not contribute much more explained variance\nthan the simple theory of social learning, although it elaborates\nthe processes influencing adolescent delinquency and drug use. The\nconditional antecedents to adolescent imitation of parental and peer\ndrug use were then explored. Attachment and norms opposing adolescent\ndrug use separately and interactively reduce the likelihood that\nadolescents will imitate parental drug use and increase the probability\nthat they will not use drugs if parents do not. Adolescents attached\nto non-drug using parents who oppose adolescent drug use were least\nlikely to imitate peer drug use. The results of this analysis indicate\nthat the assumption of additive and independent effects of the various\nantecedent factors on adolescent drug use is not warranted; theories\nof deviance must specify interaction effects.
Christiansen, A. L., Rasmussen, K. E., & Tønnesen, F. (1981). Determination of psilocybin in Psilocybe semilanceata using high-performance liquid chromatography on a silica column. Journal Of Chromatography A
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0021-9673(00)91195-6
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Christiansen, A., Rasmussen, K., & Høiland, K. (1981). The Content of Psilocybin in Norwegian Psilocybe semilanceata. Planta Medica
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1055/s-2007-971632
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“Psilocybe semilanceata contains hallucinogenic indole alkaloids and has been used as a narcotic drug in Norway. The content of psilocybin, the major constituent in Norwegian P. semilanceata, has been investigated as well as its habitats and its distribution throughout the country. The mushroom is growing on grassy sites in most parts of Norway from the middle of August to the middle of October. The psilocybin content in dried mushrooms varied considerably, from 0.17 to 1.96%. The highest concentrations in percent was found among the smaller mushrooms whereas the content in mg was highest in larger mushrooms. The content of psilocybin makes P. semilanceata to a potent hallucinogenic drug.
1980
Järbe, T. U. C. (1980). LSD-25 as a discriminative stimulus for response selection by pigeons. Pharmacology Biochemistry And Behavior
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(80)90279-8
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“Pigeons (N=4) were trained to discriminate between the effects induced by intramuscular (IM) injections of d-LSD and saline using a discrete-trial discrimination paradigm (choice between left and right hand key) in a conventional operant box. The solutions were administered IM 15 min prior to the sessions. A FR 15 schedule was in operation to produce food. Which of the two keys was correct on a given training session depended upon whether LSD or saline had been given. Three of the birds were trained and maintained with a dose of 40 μg/kg of LSD and the fourth pigeon finally was maintained on 50 μg/kg of LSD. The dose resulting in 50% LSD appropriate responding (ED50) was 18 μg/kg and the median time-interval for the decay of the LSD stimulus (40 μg/kg) was 84 min. Tests with psilocybin (ED50= 0.55 mg/kg) and N,N-dimethyltryptamine (ED50=5.7 mg/kg) resulted in responding appropriate for the LSD training condition. Mescaline injections above 10 mg/kg severely suppressed responding. The frew responses emitted after tests with 15 and 20 mg/kg of mescaline were directed to the LSD associated key. Tests with BOL (0.1 to 3 mg/kg) as well as three other psychotropic drugs (Δ9-tetrahydroannabinol, morphine and, pentobarbital) did not result in responding above 50% LSD appropriate responses. As a possible antidote, methergoline, a putitative antagonist of post-synaptic serotonin receptor sites, was administered 75 min prior to testing the cueing properties of LSD. No definitive role for a blocking effect of the LSD-cue is provided by the present data. © 1980, All rights reserved.
Thomson, B. M. (1980). Analysis of psilocybin and psilocin in mushroom extracts by reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography. J Forensic Sci
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“A method has been developed for the analysis of psilocybin and psilocin in dry and preserved mushrooms using reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography. A mobile phase of phosphate buffered methanol/water/cetrimonium bromide allows good separation of the two hallucinogens.
Kaul, B., & Davidow, B. (1980). Radioimmunoassay screening test for detection of phencyclidine (PCP, “angel dust” abuse among teenagers. Clinical Toxicology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3109/15563658008989918
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“A radioimmunoassay procedure has been developed to monitor patients suspected of phencyclidine (PCP) intoxication. Symptoms in 11 patients suspected of phencyclidine intoxication included violent, aggressive behavior with delusions, hallucinations, agitation, and other signs of toxic psychosis. In five subjects serum concentrations of PCP ranged between 0.5 and 40 ng/ml. For laboratory confirmation, ascorbic acid should be administered to the patient after collecting the initial urine specimen. The initial urine and the first and second specimen after acidification should be collected and submitted for analysis. By following this provocative mobilization procedure, phencyclidine has been identified in the first or second postacidification urine when the initial specimen gave either a negative or questionable reaction. Patients reporting to emergency rooms with hallucinations and psychosis and a history of “pot” smoking should be screened for the presence of phencyclidine in their blood and urine. For those cases that turn out to be negative for the phencyclidine group of compounds, other hallucinogenic drugs such as lysergic acid diethylamide, ketamine, mescaline, or psilocybin may be suspect.
Kocataş, A., & Geldiay, R. (1980). Effects of domestic pollution in Izmir Bay (Turkey). Helgoländer Meeresuntersuchungen
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF02414764
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“In order to investigate the pharmacokinetic properties of psilocybin (PY), the main psychoactive compound of Psilocybe mushrooms, high performance liquid chromatographic procedures with column-switching coupled with electrochemical detection (HPLC-ECD) for reliable quantitative determination of the PY metabolites psilocin (PI) and 4-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid (4HIAA) in human plasma were established. Sample work-up includes protection of the highly unstable phenolic analytes with ascorbic acid, freeze-drying and in-vitro microdialysis. The data of two controlled clinical studies with healthy volunteers are presented. The subjects (N = 6 for both studies) received single oral PY doses of 0.224 ?? 0.02 mg/kg b.wt. (10-20 mg) and intravenous doses of = mg PY, respectively. Peak plasma levels of PI after oral administration of PY were measured after 105 ?? 37 min showing an average concentration of 8.2 ?? 2.8 ng PI/ml plasma. 4HIAA peak concentrations of 150 ?? 61 ng/ml plasma were found 113 ?? 41 min after ingestion of PY. After intravenous administration, a mean PI maximum plasma concentration of 12.9 ?? 5.6 ng/ml plasma was found 1.9 ?? 1.0 min after injection. The maximum plasma levels appearing within a very short period indicate a rapid dephosphorylation of PY also when administered systemically. 4HIAA was not detected after = mg of intravenous PY. Estimates for the absolute bioavailability of PI after oral administration of PY were 52.7 ?? 20% (N = 3).
1979
Duchemin, A. M., Tam Than Quach,, Rose, C., & Schwartz, J. C. (1979). Pharmacological characterization of 3H-LSD binding sites in mouse brain in vivo. Life Sciences
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(79)90210-8
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“In mice receiving i.v. low doses of 3H-LSD the accumulation of radioactivity in brain appears to reflect a selective binding to high affinity sites as indicated by the heterogenous regional distribution (paralleling that observed in in vitro binding studies) and by the saturable character of the process (ED50 around 30μg.kg-1 in cerebral cortex). The identity of the binding sites was assessed in various regions by administration of agonists or antagonists of different neurotransmitters. In cortex specific accumulation of 3H-LSD was easily prevented by administration of serotonin antagonists (cyproheptadine, methysergide, methiothepin) or by tryptamine derivatives (psilocin, psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine) and 5-hydroxytryptophan + pargyline. Among neuroleptics some prevented 3H-LSD binding (spiperone, haloperidol) whereas 1mg.kg-1 pimozide was ineffective. In addition a large variety of agents (adrenergic, cholinergic, morphine) were ineffective. These data suggest a selective binding to cortical serotonin receptors. © 1979.
White, F. J., Appel, J. B., & Kuhn, D. M. (1979). Discriminative stimulus properties of quipazine: Direct serotonergic mediation. Neuropharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0028-3908(79)90054-6
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“Rats were trained to discriminate intraperitoneal injections of quipazine (1.0 mg/kg) from saline in a two-lever drug discrimination task. After reliable levels of accuracy (> 85%) were attained, various agents which alter the functional activity of serotonergic (5-HT) neuronal systems were tested either alone or in combination with quipazine. Neither the 5-HT precursor, l-tryptophan, nor the 5-HT re-uptake inhibitors, fluoxetine and citalopram (Lu 10-171), either alone or in combination, elicited responding on the quipazine-appropriate lever. However, fenfluramine, a drug which releases endogenous 5-HT from nerve terminals, produced 84% quipazine-like responding. The dopamine (DA) agonists, apomorphine and amphetamine, did not transfer to quipazine. Of the several neurotransmitter antagonists tested, those which block 5-HT were also found to block the quipazine cue. Para-chlorophenylalanine (PCPA), which depletes central 5-HT by inhibiting its synthesis, significantly potentiated a sub-threshold dose (0.25 mg/kg) of quipazine and reduced the transfer of fenfluramine to quipazine, suggesting that quipazine exerts its discriminatory effect by directly stimulating central 5-HT receptors. Since the potent hallucinogen, d′lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). has been shown to transfer to a relatively high dose of quipazine (2.5 mg/kg), this compound and other known hallucinogens were tested for transfer to the dose of quipazine (1.0 mg/kg) used in the present experiment. Mescaline, LSD, and psilocybin all produced strong transfers to the quipazine cue. These data suggest the possibility that quipazine may possess hallucinogenic properties. © 1979.
Unger, S. E., & Cooks, R. G. (1979). Application of mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (ms/ms) to the identification of natural products in psilocybe cyanescens. Analytical Letters
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/00032717908067906
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“1158 UNGER AND COOKS This paper deals with the analysis of constituents of the mushroom cyanescens and attempts to use this system to demonstrate TWO genera: principles. 0.40 Torr. probe. psilocybin, 2, in the mushroom cyanescens, this procedure
Mills, P. R., Lesinskas, D., & Watkinson, G. (1979). The Danger of Hallucinogenic Mushrooms. Scottish Medical Journal
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/003693307902400413
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“There has been a revival of interest amongst young people in the raw consumption of “wild” Psilocybin mushrooms, because of their hallucinogenic properties. Seven cases of mushroom overdosage are described. Whilst the hallucinogenic mushrooms are relatively harmless, the dangers from inadvertent ingestion of commonly occurring poisonous varieties are emphasised.
Benjamin, C. (1979). Persistent psychiatric symptoms after eating psilocybin mushrooms. British Medical Journal
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1136/bmj.1.6174.1319
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1978
Meltzer, H. Y., Fessler, R. G., Simonovic, M., & Fang, V. S. (1978). Stimulation of rat prolactin secretion by indolealkylamine hallucinogens. Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF00432847
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“The hallucinogenic indoleamine drugs N,N-dimethyltryptamine (N,N-DMT), psilocybin, bufotenin, 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine, and N-methyltryptamine, increased rat plasma prolactin (PRL) levels. The increase in plasma PRL produced by N,N-DMT, psilocybin, and bufotenin was inhibited by methysergide, a serotonin receptor blocker. Parachlorophenylalanine (PCPA), an inhibitor of serotonin synthesis, significantly potentiated the increase in PRL produced by N,N-DMT, and psilocybin. Parachloroamphetamine, a relatively selective toxin for serotonin neurons, also stimulated the increase in PRL produced by N,N-DMT. These results suggest that the indole hallucinogens stimulate PRL secretion by a serotonergic agonist mechanism. Bufotenin has been reported to pass the blood-brain barrier poorly, but of the indoles studied it had the most potent effect on PRL secretion. This raises the possibility that the serotonin receptors which promote PRL secretion may be outside the blood-brain barrier or that the central 5-HT receptors which mediate PRL secretion may be especially responsive to bufotenin.
Van Went, G. F. (1978). Mutagenicity testing of 3 hallucinogens: LSD, psilocybin and ‡9-THC using the micronucleus test. Experientia
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF01923013
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“Using the micronucleus test as a screening method for mutagenic activity, no significant increase in the number of micronuclei was found when LSD, psilocybin or delta 9-THC were administered in 3 logarithmically increasing doses to mice, Azathioiprine (Imuran), given as a positive control, caused a statistically significantt increase in the micronucleated cells.
Hyde, C., Glancy, G., Omerod, P., Hall, D., & Taylor, G. S. (1978). Abuse of indigenous psilocybin mushrooms: A new fashion and some psychiatric complications. British Journal Of Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1192/bjp.132.6.602
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“The use for hallucinogenic purposes of an indigenous mushroom, Psilocybe semilanceata indigenous to Britain is reported in three patients. Typical psychedelic, transient psychotic and more prolonged schizophrenia-like states were seen, with sympathomimetic signs noted in two cases, in one being prolonged. Enquiry about such mushroom abuse should be considered in individuals presenting to medical or psychiatric emergency clinics.
Siegel, R. K. (1978). Street drugs 1977: Changing patterns of recreational use. Drug Abuse And Alcoholism Review
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“Several summary speculations about future street drug use are possible in light of this review. Cocaine and intranasal drugs will increase in street use. In the future, we may speculate that cocaine will continue to be the stimulant and recreational drug of choice. Increasing user familiarity with cocaine adulterants and the intranasal route will further increase the experimental intranasal use of other compounds, particularly those with alleged stimulant properties. Herbal preparations will be more widespread and commonly accepted substitutes for controlled substances. This will proliferate through sales in mail-order houses, health food stores, and perhaps even ‘legal high shops’. Indeed, a recent article in Free Enterprise (Moershell, 1977) tells prospective business people in the field ‘how to profit from the drug trade without going to jail’ and cites one ‘lettuce opium’ dealer who is making $1,500 per day on sales of extracted lettuce products. Psilocybin will become the most common street hallucinogen, other than marihuana. This trend will be realized primarily through the proliferation of sales of mushroom spores and growing kits which enable users to cultivate their own products cheaply, reliably, and discreetly. Sales of other uncontrolled hallucinogens (San Pedro cactus, morning glory seeds, etc.) will not increase significantly due to user awareness of unpleasant side effects. PCP use will escalate. Primarily due to its economic considerations, PCP will continue to be a common adulterant in street psychedelics and will become increasingly more available as a drug by itself. New exotic psychedelics will appear. These latter compounds, already detected by SDA labs, will include the substituted amphetamines (e.g., MMDA, TMA, TMA-2, DOB, etc.), jimson weed (atropine and scopolamine), yohimbine, and ibogaine. Street drug users will become more informed and adverse reactions will decrease. The epidemic diffusion of drug-oriented publications and their publishing success will probably result in increased user awareness of all aspects of street drugs. To the extent that this information remains generally reliable and responsible (from a medical, not legal perspective), this should result in more informed street drug use and fewer clinical problems. The outcome of this movement has potential political significance with respect to the legal status of many street drugs. Future directions will differ only in substance, not spirit from past events.
Persson, S. Å. (1978). LSD and related drugs as DA antagonists: Receptor-mediated effects on the synthesis and turnover of DA. Life Sciences
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(78)90165-0
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“We have earlier shown that d-lysergic acid diethylamide, LSD and its 2-bromo derivative, BOL like the dopamine (DA) antagonists haloperidol increased the rate of the in vivo tyrosine hydroxylation in the striatum measured as the accumulation of DOPA after decarboxylase inhibition. Now we have found that several agents structurally similar to LSD increase the in vivo tyrosine hydroxylation in the striatum. Psilocybin (50 mg/kg i.p.) and N,N-dimethyltryptamine (50 mg/kg i.p.) caused a short-lasting increase of DOPA accumulation, while mescaline (10 – 100 mg/kg i.p.) did not increase the DOPA accumulation. A marked increase of DOPA accumulation was observed after the 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) antagonist cyproheptadine. The effects of LSD and structurally related drugs on the DOPA accumulation in the striatum appear to be mediated via DA antagonism at receptor level. However, these agents may control the DOPA accumulation via other receptors than DA receptors e.g. 5-HT receptors. A control of DOPA accumulation via receptors other than DA receptors appears to be predominant after treatment with N,N-dimethyltryptamine or psilocybin. © 1978.
1977
Repke, D. B., & Leslie, D. T. (1977). Baeocystin in Psilocybe semilanceata. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/jps.2600660130
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“Baeocystin and psilocybin were found in extracts of a variety of Psilocybe semilanceata. Psilocybin (but not baeocystin) was also detected in extracts of a related species, Psilocybe pelliculosa. Traces of psilocin were present in these two species. The structures of the isolated compounds were corroborated using mass spectrometry and UV spectroscopy.
Martindale, C., & Fischer, R. (1977). The effects of psilocybin on primary process content in language. Confinia Psychiatrica
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“The hypothesis that psilocybin induced primary process thinking was assessed. On four separate occasions, a subject was asked to write before, during, and after the hallucinogenic experience induced by doses ranging between 80 and 200 microgram/kg of psilocybin. Texts produced at the drug peak contained significantly more primary process content and were significantly more stereotyped on several measures than those written before or after the drug peak.
Rhead, J. C. (1977). The use of psychedelic drugs in the treatment of severely disturbed children: A review. Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/02791072.1977.10472034
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“Reviews clinical reports on the therapeutic effects of LSD, its derivative, and psilocybin on autistic schizophrenic children. Daily administration of 10-200 mg LSD improves the functions of the autonomic system, resulting in good gastrointestinal regulation, normalized sleep pattern, and weight gain. Stereotyped motor responses are reduced, and comprehension of speech is improved. However, the objectivity of clinical observations is questionable in at least one study. The drug effects lasted 5 yrs in one study, but were only transient in other studies. There is no evidence to indicate any chromosomal abnormality after repeated administration of LSD. (54 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Repke, D. B., Leslie, D. T., & Guzmán, G. (1977). Baeocystin in psilocybe, conocybe and panaeolus. Lloydia
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“Sixty collections of ten species referred to three families of the Agaricales have been analyzed for the presence of baeocystin by thin-layer chromatography. Baeocystin was detected in collections of Psilocybe, Conocybe, and Panaeolus from the U.S.A., Canada, Mexico, and Peru. Laboratory cultivated fruitbodies of Psilocybe cubensis, P. semilanceata, and P. cyanescens were also studied. Intra-species variation in the presence of decay rate of baeocystin, psilocybin and psilocin are discussed in terms of age and storage factors. In addition, evidence is presented to support the presence of 4-hydroxytryptamine in collections of P. baeocystis and P. cyanescens. The possible significance of baeocystin and 4-hydroxytryptamine in the biosynthesis of psilocybin in these organisms is discussed.
Menon, M. K., Clark, W. G., & Masuoka, D. T. (1977). Possible involvement of the central dopaminergic system in the antireserpine effect of LSD. Psychopharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF00426714
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“The effects of d-LSD tartrate (Sandoz) and apmorphine HCl (APM, Lilly) were studied in reserpinized mice. Groups of 3-20 male Swiss mice (23-28 g) were treated with reserpine (CIBA-Geigy) 5 mg/kg i.p. and 4 hr later, the following drugs were given i.p. and motor activity measured immediately: LSD and APM 0.1-6 mg/kg; mescaline HC1 (Roche) and psilocybin 5, 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg; brom-LSD (BOL 148, Sandoz) 1 and 10 mg/kg and quipazine (Miles) 25 mg/kg. Other animals were pretreated with LSD – day 1 2 x 3 mg/kg, day 2 3 x 1 mg/kg and tested on day 3, 4 hr after reserpine, with either LSD or APM l mg/kg. Other reserpinized mice were given the following drugs before administration of LSD or APM 1 mg/kg: dl-a-methyl-ptyrosine-methyl ester hydrochloride (a-MT, Astra) 250 mg/kg, -3.5 hr; phenoxybenzamine (SK+F) 10 mg/kg, 1 hr; chlorpromazine C1 (CPZ, SK+F) 3 mg/kg; methysergide (Sandoz) 3 mg/kg, 15 mini haloperidol (McNeil) 1 or 5 mg/kg, 15 mini pimozide (Janssen) 0.5 or 3 mg/kg, 2 hr and clonidine (CIBA-Geigy) 1 mg/kg, 3 min before. Groups of novice mice received LSD or APM 3 mg/kg or saline and 10 min later some received a-MT 250 mg/kg base. All were killed 3 hr later and brain catecholamines (CA) were determined. Reserpinized mice were completely inactive in 4 hr. Both LSD and APM dose-dependently antagonized this depression within 3 min. Brom-LSD, mescaline, psilocybin and quipazine did not produce locomotor stimulation. Tolerance did not develop to the effect of LSD nor between LSD and APM. a-MT and phenoxybenzamine did not alter the motor response to LSD or APM. Methysergide potentiated the APM, but not LSD, effect. CPZ, haloperidol and pimozide almost completely abolished the APM response and significantly reduced the LSD response, Clonidine pretreatment produced motor excitation in LSD and APM treated mice. Neither APM nor LSD affected the levels of CA in whole brain. LSD did not modify a-MT depletion of brain CA. APM enhanced norepinephrine depletion and decreased that of dopamine. LSD may act as a site structurally related to the dopamine receptor.
Repke, D. B., Leslie, D. T., Mandell, D. M., & Kish, N. G. (1977). GLC‐mass spectral analysis of psilocin and psilocybin. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/jps.2600660539
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“Salmonella enterica is an intracellular pathogen that causes diseases ranging from gastroenteritis to typhoid fever. Salmonella bacteria trigger an autophagic response in host cells upon infection but have evolved mechanisms for suppressing this response, thereby enhancing intracellular survival. We recently reported that S. enterica serovar Typhimurium actively recruits the host tyrosine kinase focal adhesion kinase (FAK) to the surface of the Salmonella -containing vacuole (SCV) (K. A. Owen et al., PLoS Pathog 10:e1004159, 2014). FAK then suppresses autophagy through activation of the Akt/mTORC1 signaling pathway. In FAK −/− macrophages, bacteria are captured in autophagosomes and intracellular survival is attenuated. Here we show that the cell-autonomous bacterial suppression of autophagy also suppresses the broader innate immune response by inhibiting production of beta interferon (IFN-β). Induction of bacterial autophagy (xenophagy), but not autophagy alone, triggers IFN-β production through a pathway involving the adapter TRIF and endosomal Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and TLR4. Selective FAK knockout in macrophages resulted in rapid bacterial clearance from mucosal tissues after oral infection. Clearance correlated with increased IFN-β production by intestinal macrophages and with IFN-β-dependent induction of IFN-γ by intestinal NK cells. Blockade of either IFN-β or IFN-γ increased host susceptibility to infection, whereas experimental induction of IFN-β was protective. Thus, bacterial suppression of autophagy not only enhances cell-autonomous survival but also suppresses more-systemic innate immune responses by limiting type I and type II interferons.
1976
Cameron, O. G., & Appel, J. B. (1976). Drug-induced conditioned suppression: Specificity due to drug employed as UCS. Pharmacology, Biochemistry And Behavior
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(76)90020-4
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“The classical conditioning potential of several drugs was tested in rats by pairing a light CS with the drug UCSs; these stimuli were superimposed on a variable-interval 30 sec schedule for water reinforcement. Conditioning (suppressionof bar-pressing in the presence of the CS) was definitely demonstrated with psilocybin (2.0 mg/kg), was suggested but not clearly shown with LSD (0.13 mg/kg), and was not evident with methyl atropine nitrate (50 mg/kg) or pentobarbital (25 mg/kg). These results indicate that previously demonstrated drug-induced conditioned suppression is not a nonspecific effect of unconditioned suppression but depends on the type of drug employed. © 1976.
1975
Pollock, S. H. (1975). The psilocybin mushroom pandemic. Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/02791072.1975.10472640
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Rech, R. H., Tilson, H. A., & Marquis, W. J. (1975). Adaptive changes in behavior after repeated administration of various psychoactive drugs. Advances In Biochemical Psychopharmacology
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“Evidence has been presented that d-amphetamine interacts with various types of behavior in the context of a conditioning paradigm. Rats exposed simultaneously to a locomotor activity measurement and three dose levels of d-amphetamine on repeated occasions gradually developed dose-related enhancement of drug-stimulated activity, which persisted after discontinuation of the drug. Rats trained in FR-operant chambers with food reinforcement showed a decrease in the rate of lever pressing after administration of d-amphetamine. Tolerance to this effect required varying numbers of daily drug injections, according to the subject’s degree of prior drug experience. In both situations the drug administrations were coupled with the behavioral measure to allow for conditioning effects. In a continuous avoidance procedure the initial dose of d-amphetamine did not enhance response rate, although subsequent doses did produce significant stimulation. Even when the initial doses were administered out of temporal phase with the avoidance measurement, the simultaneous administration of the drug and the behavioral procedure on a subsequent day resulted in a significant drug-induced stimulation of response rate. Thus, in this particular instance, the conditioning influence of the earlier doses was apparent whether or not the drug effect occurred in contiguity with the avoidance measurement. Other reports in the literature (16) suggest that hallucinogenic drug action may be characterized by the peculiar “pause” in an FR pattern of responding for food reinforcement. This proposal was substantiated and extended to a number of representative hallucinogenic agents. d-Amphetamine or chlorpormazine reduced the rate of FR responding without provoking an obvious pause. Examination of tolerance and cross-tolerance to the hallucinogenic pause in the FR pattern after LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, DOM, and DMT generally indicated interactions between the drugs, although this was not entirely consistent. It follows that the mechanisms of action of these drugs probably have elements in common, though they are not necessarily identical. In doses as small as 10 mg/kg, cinanserin, a serotonergic receptor-blocking agent, completely reversed the pause in FR pattern induced by the various hallucinogenic drugs.
Buczacki, S. T., Toxopeus, H., Mattusch, P., Johnston, T. D., Dixon, G. R., & Hobolth, L. A. (1975). Study of physiologic specialization in Plasmodiophora brassicae: Proposals for attempted rationalization through an international approach. Transactions Of The British Mycological Society
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0007-1536(75)80013-1
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“Psilocin (4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) is a hallucinogen that acts as an agonist at 5-HT(1A), 5-HT(2A), and 5-HT(2C) receptors. Psilocin is the active metabolite of psilocybin, a hallucinogen that is currently being investigated clinically as a potential therapeutic agent. In the present investigation, we used a combination of genetic and pharmacological approaches to identify the serotonin (5-HT) receptor subtypes responsible for mediating the effects of psilocin on head twitch response (HTR) and the behavioral pattern monitor (BPM) in C57BL/6J mice. We also compared the effects of psilocin with those of the putative 5-HT(2C) receptor-selective agonist 1-methylpsilocin and the hallucinogen and non-selective serotonin receptor agonist 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT). Psilocin, 1-methylpsilocin, and 5-MeO-DMT induced the HTR, effects that were absent in mice lacking the 5-HT(2A) receptor gene. When tested in the BPM, psilocin decreased locomotor activity, holepoking, and time spent in the center of the chamber, effects that were blocked by the selective 5-HT(1A) antagonist WAY-100635 but were not altered by the selective 5-HT(2C) antagonist SB 242,084 or by 5-HT(2A) receptor gene deletion. 5-MeO-DMT produced similar effects when tested in the BPM, and the action of 5-MeO-DMT was significantly attenuated by WAY-100635. Psilocin and 5-MeO-DMT also decreased the linearity of locomotor paths, effects that were mediated by 5-HT(2C) and 5-HT(1A) receptors, respectively. In contrast to psilocin and 5-MeO-DMT, 1-methylpsilocin (0.6-9.6 mg/kg) was completely inactive in the BPM. These findings confirm that psilocin acts as an agonist at 5-HT(1A), 5-HT(2A), and 5-HT(2C) receptors in mice, whereas the behavioral effects of 1-methylpsilocin indicate that this compound is acting at 5-HT(2A) sites but is inactive at the 5-HT(1A) receptor. The fact that 1-methylpsilocin displays greater pharmacological selectivity than psilocin indicates that 1-methylpsilocin represents a potentially useful alternative to psilocybin for development as a potential therapeutic agent
Greenberg, I., Kuhn, D., & Appel, J. B. (1975). Comparison of the discriminative stimulus properties of delta9-THC and psilocybin in rats. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, And Behavior
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“Male albino rats were trained to respond differentially on the left or right lever in a 2-lever chamber on the basis of which drug had been given intra-peritoneally (IP) 30 min before experimentation. In 1 group 1.9 mg/kg of delta9-THC and control injections (vehicle) served as the discriminative stimuli associated with each lever and in another group the drug stimuli were 1.0 mg/kg of delta9-THC and 1.0 mg/kg of psilocybin. The results confirmed those of other experiments using different procedures; that delta9-THC can acquire discriminative control over responding. The fact that delta9-THC and psilocybin were also found to differentially control lever choice demonstrates that these 2 drugs probably produce discriminably different states in rats.
Shulgin, A. T. (1975). Drugs of Abuse in the Future. Clinical Toxicology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3109/15563657508990076
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“Explores a possible approach to the problem of drug abuse, based on an outline which anticipates the chemical and pharmacological directions toward which the drug-oriented subculture might turn. From the main classifications of drugs which have abuse reality and abuse potential–opiates, stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens–the commonly known and used drugs, as well as their new and experimental derivatives, are described, and their methods of derivation and effects are detailed. Among the opiates are morphine, heroin, and thebaine and the derivatives acetorphine, ethorpine, cyprenorphine, methylmorphanan, meperidine, and Fentanyl. The sympathomimetic (stimulant) agents include amphetamine, methamphetamine, methylphenidate, phenmetrazine, levophacetoperane, fenethylline, ephedrine, and ecgonine. Among the depressants described are phenobarbital, metharbital, glutethimide, methaqualone, and phencyclidine. The hallucinogens include psilocybin, harmaline, mescaline, and atropine. The possibility that some prescription and over-the-counter drugs (e.g., dextromethorphan) may become future abuse problems is explored, and a list of controlled substances and recent additions or reclassifications is included. (92 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved)
Fischer, R., & Goldman, H. (1975). Therapeutic Usefulness of Hallucinogenic Drugs as a Function of their Chemical Structure. Pharmacopsychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1055/s-0028-1094457
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“D-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) displays (1) the phenylethylamine pattern present in mescaline, cyclazocine and catecholamines and (2) the 4-substituted tryptamine structure of psilocybin which is a serotonin analog. Hence (a) Naloxone–a blocker of the LSD-like side effects of cyclazocine–should (and does) block effects of LSD, and (b) cross-tolerance may be present between LSD and cyclazocine but not between mescaline and psilocybin. Even though LSD binds subcortically, its effect on regional perfusion of the brain and, presumably, function is primarily cortical and, since the perfusion shifts evoked by psilocybin are confined to subcortical regions, we assume that other compounds with the phenylethylamine structure such as mescaline, also may selectively affect cortical activity.
1974
Fanciullacci, M., Franchi, G., & Sicuteri, F. (1974). Hypersensitivity to lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25) and psilocybin in essential headache. Experientia
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF01919685
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Horibe, M. (1974). The effects of psilocybin on EEG and behavior in monkeys. Activitas Nervosa Superior
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“Conducted a series of experiments with rhesus monkeys in which dynamic and static elements of spontaneous behavior were recorded and classified, and responses to sensory stimulation were observed, after 0.1-4 mg/kg ip injections of psilocybin. Two phases of behavioral changes were produced: a dynamic phase, and a static phase with intoxication and drowsiness. In EEG experiments with chronically implanted monkeys and chronic and acute rabbits, neocortical EEG changes were correlated with the behavioral effects after psilocybin, but not the EEG of the hippocampus and amygdaloid complex, in both species. In the period between the 2 behavioral phases, a staggering gait was observed in the monkeys which correlated particularly with electrooculogram changes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
1973
Shimkunas, A. M., & Murray, D. R. (1973). Behavioral changes induced by the chronic administration of amphetamines. Foreign.psychiatry
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“Randomly divided male CFW Swiss strain mice into 4 groups of 10 Ss each. Dextroamphetamine was administered for 35 days to Groups 1 and 2 in intraperitoneal doses of 5 and 8 mg/kg daily, respectively, and to Group 3 orally in a daily dose of 1 mg/kg. Group 4 acted as a control. Abnormal behaviors observed in Groups 1 and 2 consisted of social disorganization, self-inflicted lesions, hallucinatory behavior, cannibalism, and autism. Group 3 demonstrated hyperactivity and cannibalism. It is suggested that the model of behavioral abnormality produced by dextroamphetamine is indistinguishable from paranoid schizophrenia in humans and will better serve in analyzing psychotic syndromes than the psychoses produced by LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Fabrick, D. M., & Winefordner, J. D. (1973). Quantitative measurement of mixtures of hallucinogens by fluorometry and phosphorimetry. Talanta
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0039-9140(73)80087-6
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“Room temperature fluorometric and low-temperature phosphorimetric analytical curves of hallucinogens in methanol/water solution have been prepared to demonstrate the absence of interference in common binary mixtures of hallucinogenic drugs. Limits of detection and linear dynamic ranges have been determined for drugs in mixtures. Mixtures containing LSD and another hallucinogen such as STP (DOM), psilocybin, mescaline, and phencyclidine have been studied. Detection limits are low, and analytical curves are linear over wide concentration ranges. © 1973.
Hall, M. C. (1973). Problems in legislating against abuse of hallucinogenic fungi in Australia. Bulletin On Narcotics
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1145/2983323.2983881
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“The ingestion of fung for the purpose of inducing hallucinations and other ‘mystical’ experiences is not a new phenomenon, but has been practised in primitive societies for thousands of years. Although the Australian aborigines did have knowledge of a number of native plants containing pharmacologically active material, there is apparently no evidence available to suggest that they ingested Australian fungi to induce hallucinations. In the past few years increased interest has been shown overseas by drug abusers in psycho active agents of natural origin such as psilocybin and psilocin which are known to occur in a number of fungal species. The drug mescaline which is present in the peyote cactus Lophophora williamsii is also highly regarded. In Australia drug abusers are now known to search for locally growing fungal species which can cause hallucinations on ingestion. This paper has been prepared as an attempt to show some of the difficulties associated with the formulation of legislation designed to control the abuse of hallucinogenic fungi.
Marquis, W. J., Tilson, H. A., & Rech, R. H. (1973). Effects of amphetamine (A), LSD, psilocybin (P), and DOM on schedule controlled behavior in the rat. Federation Proceedings
Cole, J. M., & Pieper, W. A. (1973). The effects of N,N-dimethyltryptamine on operant behavior in squirrel monkeys. Psychopharmacologia
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF00422642
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“Five squirrel monkeys were trained to stable levels of performance on fixed ratio schedules of food reinforcement. N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) was then injected intramuscularly prior to fixed ratio testing and the behavioral effects observed. The determination of dose-response relationships with doses of 0.0, 5.4 and 10.8 ~moles/kg indicated that latencies to initiate responding were an increasing function of the dose, while overall response rates, as measured from the first to the last response of the session were unaffected. When a dose of DMT which initially disrupted operant behavior was administered once daily for 36 to 38 consecutive days, tolerance was not observed to occur. The compound N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a hallucinogenic agent that produces behavioral and autonomic effects in humans similar to those produced by lysergic acid diethylamide (Meldrum and Naquet, 1971). These effects include visual hallucinations, perceptual distortions, euphoria, anxiety and numerous autonomic changes (Boszormenyi, Der, and Nagy, 1959; gosenberg, Isbell, Miner, and Logan, 1964). Major differences between DMT and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) were reported by Uyeno (1968) who found DMT to be much less potent in disrupting visual discrimination ability in squirrel monkeys, and by Rosenberg et al. (1964) who found the duration of the drug effect to be much shorter for DMT. These latter investigators also found no cross tolerance from LSD to DMT. This was an unexpected result in view of the fact that cross tolerance does occur between LSD and psilocybin, a compound structurally similar to DMT that also produces comparable behavioral effects. In the present experiment squirrel monkeys were used to test the effects of DMT on operant (fixed ratio) behavior. Both dose-response relationships and the development of tolerance were investigated. Since previous reports by Isbell, Wolbach, Wikler, and Miner (1961) and Wol-bach, Isbell, and Miner (1962) indicated that direct tolerance to hallu-cinogens such as LSD, mescaline and psilocybin occurred within a period of several days, it was expected that tolerance to DMT would develop.
Panton, Y., & Fischer, R. (1973). Hallucinogenic Drug-Induced Behavior Under Sensory Attenuation: Prediction of Response to Psilocybin. Archives Of General Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.1973.01750330106017
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1972
Walker, R. J., & Woodruff, G. N. (1972). The effect of bufotenine, melatonin, psilocybin, and related compounds on the5-hydroxytryptamine excitatory receptors of Helix aspersa neurons. Comparative And General Pharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0010-4035(72)90039-0
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“1. 1. Intracellular recordings were made from identifiable neurons in the suboesophageal ganglionic mass of the snail, Helix aspersa. All the cells used were excited by 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and inhibited by dopamine. 2. 2. The equipotent molar ratios were determined for a number of tryptamine analogues. The following compounds closely resembled 5-HT in their mode of action on 5-HT excitatory receptors: N-methyl-5-hydroxytryptamine; α-methyl-5-hydroxytryptamine; bufotenine; 5-methoxytryptamine. 3. 3. A comparison is made between the structural requirements for the snail 5-HT excitatory receptor and for 5-HT receptors present in 8 other animal tissues. 4. 4. The requirements for potent 5-HT-like activity on snail neurons include the presence of an indole nucleus with a hydroxyl group in the 5 position and for a side chain with no greater substitution than a methyl group on either the terminal nitrogen or the α carbon. © 1972.
Baron, J. B. (1972). Tonic postural activity and motor imagination. Agressologie: Revue Internationale De Physio-Biologie Et De Pharmacologie Appliquees Aux Effets De L’agression
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4230-10.2011
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“Epidemiological studies indicate that maternal influenza viral infection increases the risk for schizophrenia in the adult offspring. The serotonin and glutamate systems are suspected in the etiology of schizophrenia, as well as in the mechanism of action of antipsychotic drugs. The effects of hallucinogens, such as psilocybin and mescaline, require the serotonin 5-HT(2A) receptor, and induce schizophrenia-like psychosis in humans. In addition, metabotropic glutamate receptor mGlu(2/3) agonists show promise as a new treatment for schizophrenia. Here, we investigated the level of expression and behavioral function of 5-HT(2A) and mGlu(2) receptors in a mouse model of maternal influenza viral infection. We show that spontaneous locomotor activity is diminished by maternal infection with the mouse-adapted influenza A/WSN/33 (H1N1) virus. The behavioral responses to hallucinogens and glutamate antipsychotics are both affected by maternal exposure to influenza virus, with increased head-twitch response to hallucinogens and diminished antipsychotic-like effect of the glutamate agonist. In frontal cortex of mice born to influenza virus-infected mothers, the 5-HT(2A) receptor is upregulated and the mGlu(2) receptor is downregulated, an alteration that may be involved in the behavioral changes observed. Additionally, we find that the cortical 5-HT(2A) receptor-dependent signaling pathways are significantly altered in the offspring of infected mothers, showing higher c-fos, egr-1, and egr-2 expression in response to the hallucinogenic drug DOI. Identifying a biochemical alteration that parallels the behavioral changes observed in a mouse model of prenatal viral infection may facilitate targeting therapies for treatment and prevention of schizophrenia.
Fuxe, K., Holmstedt, B., & Jonsson, G. (1972). Effects of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine on central monoamine neurons. European Journal Of Pharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0014-2999(72)90073-8
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“Using α-propyldopacetamide (H 22/54), a tryptophan hydroxylase inhibitor, and α-methyltyrosine methylester (H 44/68), a tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor, the effects of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) on amine turnover in central 5-HT, NA and DA nerve terminals of the rat were studied using histochemical fluorescence methods for the demonstration of CA and 5-HT. It was found that 5-MeO-DMT in single or repeated doses of 5 mg/kg decreased the H 22/54-induced disappearance of 5-HT fluorescence in 5-HT nerve terminals and increased the H 44/68 and H 22/54-induced disappearance of NA fluorescence in NA nerve terminals, suggesting that 5-MeO-DMT decreased 5-HT turnover and increased NA turnover. In the functional experiments, 5-MeO-DMT markedly increased the extensor hindlimb reflex of the spinal rat independently of presynaptic 5-HT stores, a reflex which is highly dependent on 5-HT receptor activity. These results suggest that 5-MeO-DMT can directly stimulate central 5-HT receptors. It is proposed that the decrease in 5-HT turnover observed is secondary to the 5-HT receptor stimulation induced by 5-MeO-DMT, which elicits a negative feed-back resulting in a reduction of the activity of the 5-HT neurons. In view of previous studies on d-LSD, dimethyltryptamine and psilocybin (Andén et al., 1968, 1971) and the present results, a capacity to stimulate 5-HT receptors seems to be a common property of hallucinogens of the indolealkylamine type. © 1972.
1971
Witt, P. N. (1971). Drugs alter web-building of spiders.pdf. Behavioral Science
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“Reviews the findings of 22 yr. of investigation of spider-web-building and its sensitivity to drugs. Chlorpromazine, diazepam, and psilocybin, as well as temperature and light conditions could prevent onset of web-building. Pentobarbital sodium could cause end of radius construction before completion. D-amphetamine caused irregular radius and spiral spacing, but showed regular execution of probing movements. Scopolamine caused wide deviation of spiral spacing distinctly different from amphetamine, while LSD-25 application resulted in unusually regular webs. Size of catching area, length of thread, density of structure, thread thickness, and web weight were varied in different ways through treatment with cholinergic and anticholinergic drugs and tranquilizers. Glandular or CNS points of attack for drugs are identified, and disturbed webs regarded as the result of interference at any of several levels which contribute to the integrated pattern. Web-building as a biological test method for identification of pathogenic substances in patients’ body fluids is evaluated. (33 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Meek, J. L., & Fuxe, K. (1971). Serotonin accumulation after monoamine oxidase inhibition. Effects of decreased impulse flow and of some anti-depressants and hallucinogens. Biochemical Pharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(71)90155-9
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“The rate of synthesis of serotonin (5-HT) in rat brain and spinal cord was determined by inhibiting monoamine oxidase and measuring the resulting accumulation of 5-HT. The location of this 5-HT was examined using fluorescence histochemistry. No alteration of accumulation was seen when the flow of impulses in serotonergic nerve fibers in the spinal cord was decreased by sectioning. The accumulation was also unaltered when the animals were treated with several drugs that reduce 5-HT turnover: LSD, psilocybin and chlorimipramine. These results support previous suggestions that normal control of synthesis of 5-HT by end-product inhibition or impulse-controlled feedback does not function in rats treated with a MAO inhibitor. The accumulation of 5-HT in brain was reduced when the animals were treated with N,N-dimethyltryptamine, α-ethyltryptamine, p-methoxy amphetamine or p-chloromethamphetamine after receiving a monoamine oxidase inhibitor. The same effect also occurred in both intact and transected spinal cords. These drugs also caused the appearance of extraneuronal 5-HT fluorescence. These effects probably mainly arose from release by these latter drugs of 5-HT which was not stored in granules. p-Chloromethamphetamine was also seen to deplete 5-HT from the granular stores of normal animals. p-Methoxyamphetamine, p-chloromethamphetamme and α-ethyltryptamine strongly potentiated the hindlimb extensor reflex in spinal rats whose endogenous 5-HT stores had been depleted. These drugs seem to directly stimulate the central 5-HT receptors involved in this reflex. © 1971.
Meldrum, B. S., & Naquet, R. (1971). Effects of psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine, mescaline and various allergic acid derivatives on the EEG and on photically induced epilepsy in the baboon (Papio papio). Electroencephalography And Clinical Neurophysiology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0013-4694(71)90072-1
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“Following the demonstration that lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) inhibits myoclonic responses to intermittent photic stimulation (ILS) in the baboon, some other hallucinogenic drugs and some “non-hallucinogenic” derivatives of lysergic acid have been tested for their effects on the EEG and on photically induced epilepsy in twenty-two adolescent baboons (Papio papio). Psilocybin (1-4 mg/kg) and dimethyltryptamine (2-4 mg/kg) produced marked autonomic effects, EEG changes consistent with a severe disturbance of consciousness and a complete abolition of myoclonic or paroxysmal EEG responses to ILS (thus closely resembling the effect of LSD, 40-100 μg/kg). Mescaline (up to 32 mg/kg) was relatively ineffective on both the background EEG and on the myoclonic responses to ILS. After methysergide (2-5 mg/kg), although the autonomic effects were less severe than after psilocybin, there were muscular hypotonia, an abnormal EEG and reduction or abolition of the epileptic responses to ILS. BOL 148 and methergoline appeared less potent than methysergide, but, at 4 mg/kg, both drugs abolished ILS-induced myoclonus. Averaged responses to flash stimulation showed that psilocybin resembled LSD 25 in modifying transmission in the afferent visual pathway, whereas methysergide, in doses blocking ILS-induced myoclonus, did not alter primary evoked responses in the visual cortex. It is suggested that a serotoninergic system is probably involved in the epileptic responses of the baboon to ILS. © 1971.
Makolkin, V. I., Shatikhin, A. I., Abbakumov, S. A., & Leshkova, M. I. (1971). Diagnostika patologii predserdi?? s pomoshch’iu beskrovnykh instrumental’nykh metodov issledovaniia. Kardiologiya
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1162/089976602317250861
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“Many observers see geometric visual hallucinations after taking hallucinogens such as LSD, cannabis, mescaline or psilocybin; on viewing bright flickering lights; on waking up or falling asleep; in “near-death” experiences; and in many other syndromes. Klüver organized the images into four groups called form constants: (I) tunnels and funnels, (II) spirals, (III) lattices, including honeycombs and triangles, and (IV) cobwebs. In most cases, the images are seen in both eyes and move with them. We interpret this to mean that they are generated in the brain. Here, we summarize a theory of their origin in visual cortex (area V1), based on the assumption that the form of the retino-cortical map and the architecture of V1 determine their geometry. (A much longer and more detailed mathematical version has been published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 356 [2001].) We model V1 as the continuum limit of a lattice of interconnected hypercolumns, each comprising a number of interconnected iso-orientation columns. Based on anatomical evidence, we assume that the lateral connectivity between hypercolumns exhibits symmetries, rendering it invariant under the action of the Euclidean group E(2), composed of reflections and translations in the plane, and a (novel) shift-twist action. Using this symmetry, we show that the various patterns of activity that spontaneously emerge when V1’s spatially uniform resting state becomes unstable correspond to the form constants when transformed to the visual field using the retino-cortical map. The results are sensitive to the detailed specification of the lateral connectivity and suggest that the cortical mechanisms that generate geometric visual hallucinations are closely related to those used to process edges, contours, surfaces, and textures.
1970
König-Bersin, P., Waser, P. G., Langemann, H., & Lichtensteiger, W. (1970). Monoamines in the brain under the influence of muscimol and ibotenic acid, two psychoactive principles of amanita muscaria. Psychopharmacologia
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF00402378
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“The concentrations of noradrenaline, dopamine and serotonin were measured in the brain of male albino mice and rats after intraperitoneal injections of muscimol, ibotenic acid or LSD. All three drugs induced a generalized increase of serotonin. When muscimol was administered to rats after pretreatment with p-chlorophenylalanine, a serotonin synthesis inhibitor, the serotonin concentration was still increased in midbrain and hypothalamus. Muscimol also caused a reduced accumulation of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid in rats pretreated with probenecid. There were differences in the action of the three compounds on the catecholamine concentration. Muscimol and LSD caused a decrease of the catecholamines. Ibotenic acid increased the catecholamine concentration. Certain topographical differences were noted. The increase in the serotonin concentration in the hypothalamus and midbrain after muscimol may be due to a reduced turnover of serotonin. An increase in serotonin concentration and a decrease of 5-hydroxyindolacetic acid in the rat brain are effects observed also with other psychotomimetic drugs such as LSD or psilocybin. © 1970 Springer-Verlag.
Eberle, P., & Leuner, H. (1970). Chromosomendefekte bei Psilocybin-Patienten. Human Genetics
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF00286993
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Freedman, D. X., Gottlieb, R., & Lovell, R. A. (1970). Psychotomimetic drugs and brain 5-hydroxytryptamine metabolism. Biochemical Pharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(70)90378-3
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“The effects of indolealkylamine and phenylethylamine psychotomimetic drugs on brain 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) metabolism have been studied. Indolealkylamines (psilocybin, psilocin, N,N-dimethyltryptamine or DMT) have a lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)-like effect (increased 5-HT with concomitant decrease in 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid. 5-HIAA). A degree of inhibition of monoamine oxidase can be demonstrated with psilocybin and psilocin, but not with LSD. The data suggest that other factors are operative in producing decreased levels of 5-HIAA. Phenylethylamines (mescaline, 2,5-dimethoxy-α,4-dimethylphenylethylamine or DOM) not only increase 5-HT but also, at higher doses, 5-HIAA; at lower doses, there is some indication of an LSD-like effect on 5-HIAA. Both categories of drug influence 5-HT metabolism, and the noted differences with respect to 5-HIAA cannot as yet be accounted for. © 1970.
Fischer, R., Hill, R., Thatcher, K., & Scheib, J. (1970). Psilocybin-induced contraction of nearby visual space. Agents And Actions
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF01965761
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“Using apparent fronto-parallel plane (AFP) monitoring techniques, the relative stability of the abathic plane, i.e. Euclidean visual space, was investigated in 16 volunteers with a median age of 23.5 years under 160 μg/kg psilocybininduced ergotropic arousal. Handwriting area and pressure were also measured in the same subjects. Drug-induced contraction of nearby visual space was inferred from changes of AFP curvature and tilt, as well as from increased handwriting area at drug peak. The ‘rising horizon’ (Rennert) in the drawings of schizophrenics is also considered a manifestation of the contraction of visual space and is described in terms of an arousal-dependent transformation of constancies. The ‘projection’ of central nervous system activity as experience ‘out there’ is also discussed as an arousal-dependent learned constancy.
Scholes, N. W., & Gutnick, M. J. (1970). Relative activity of psychotoxic drugs on the avian optic lobe. European Journal Of Pharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0014-2999(70)90080-4
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“Because of restrictions in the use of psychotoxic drugs in the human, a subhuman experimental tool suitable for the study of these drugs and their antagonist would be useful. Using standard electrophysiological techniques, the action of psychotoxic drugs on the electrical activity of the optic tectum of the young chick has been studied. The intravenous administration of lysergic acid diethylamide L(SD) to this animal produces a well defined and consistent change in tectal activity. A comparable change occurs following administration of other psychotoxic agents (psilocybin, mescaline and amphetamine). The relative potency of these agents on tectal activity compares favorably with their relative psychotoxic potency in man. These results favor the view that the mechanism of action of these psychotoxic agents on the chick tectum resembles, to some degree, their psychotoxic properties in man. It is suggested that the avian preparation may be useful for the study of the pharmacology of psychotoxic drugs and antagonists. © 1970.
1969
Mulé, S. J. (1969). Identification of narcotics, barbiturates, amphetamines, tranquilizers and psychotomimetics in human urine. Journal Of Chromatography A
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0021-9673(01)98015-X
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“This study was undertaken to evaluate the ion-exchange paper technique and rapid direct extraction methods for obtaining drugs of abuse from urine and the subsequent identification of these drugs or metabolites by thin-layer chromatography coupled with sequential chemical reagent spraying. Recoveries from urine ± S.D. of 21.7 ± 5%, 2.4 ± 0.8% and 21 ± 1% were obtained for labeled morphine, pentobarbital and amphetamine, respectively, using the ion-exchange paper technique. With this method most narcotic analgesics could be detected at a level of 1 μg/ml urine (50 ml urine sample). The method in general was unacceptable for detecting either barbiturates, amphetamines or certain psycho-active drugs (psilocybin, glutethamide, chlorpromazine, marihuana). Percentage recoveries obtained with direct extraction from urine ± S.D. were 61 ± 4% for morphine-14C, 86 ± 6% for pentobarbital-14C, and 61 ± 21% for amphetamine-3H. Utilizing direct extraction methods almost all the drugs of abuse could be detected at levels ranging from 1 to 2 μg/ml of urine (15 ml of urine sample). The methods described in this report provided some specificity through differential pH extraction. The subsequent use of thin-layer chromatography and sequential spray reagents allowed identification of specific drugs or metabolites. All methods and techniques could be completed within 24 h. The direct extraction in all cases and the ion-exchange technique for narcotics were sufficiently sensitive to provide detection of drug usage 24 h after last administration of drug. Both techniques were extremely simple to perform and did not require expensive equipment thus keeping the cost of analysis at a minimum. These techniques may readily be adapted to a urine monitoring program screening for drugs of abuse, provided the limitations as described are well understood. © 1969.
Tanaka, R. (1969). Effect of anesthetics on renal function with special reference to the nephrotoxicity of penthrane. Japanese Journal of Anesthesiology
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“Abstract The psychoactive substance 4-HO-MET (4-hydroxy-N-methyl-N-ethyltryptamine) with psychedelic qualities is one of many legal so-called Internet drugs. The aim of this qualitative study was to establish an understanding of what characterizes its recreational use. Very little is known about the effects of this substance. Twenty-five anonymous Swedish experience reports (from persons aged 18–30 years) from public Internet forums were analyzed using the Empirical Phenomenological Psychological Method. The analysis produced 37 categories that were compiled into nine general themes: (1) motivation, preparation and expectation; (2) initial effects; (3) change of perception; (4) unfiltered awareness and intensified flow of information; (5) lateral cognition; (6) border between subject and object is erased; (7) heaven; (8) hell; and (9) subsiding effects. An understanding of the chronological happenings, called The Process, appeared out of the general structure. Drastic changes in cognitive, emotional and bodily functions were described. The motivation for use seemed to be driven by a strong curiosity. The experiences shifted between “heaven” and “hell,” but participants appeared satisfied and ready to repeat the experience. The experiences described show great similarity with classic psychedelic substances as LSD or psilocybin. More research is needed about health hazards or possible therapeutic potentials.
Uyeno, E. T. (1969). Alteration of a learned response of the squirrel monkey by hallucinogens. International Journal Of Neuropharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0028-3908(69)90045-8
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“The relative effectiveness of N,N-dimethyltryptamine derivatives and amphetamine derivatives was evaluated in seven squirrel monkeys, trained to discriminate between two black discs of different sizes. After the animals learned the task, they were injected intraperitoneally with the test compounds and then retested. The dose-response curves showed that debilitating effects of the compounds were a function of dose. The median effective doses (ED50) that disrupted their performance were calculated according to the graphic logarithmic probit method. The descending rank order of effectiveness of the compounds, according to theED50 was: 2,5-dimethoxy-4-ethyl-amphetamine; 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl-amphetamine; psilocybin; 4-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine; N,N-dimethyltryptamine; and 6-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine.
1968
Turner, P. (1968). Critical flicker frequency and centrally-acting drugs. The British Journal Of Ophthalmology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1136/bjo.52.3.245
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“THE critical flicker frequency (cff) may be defined as the fastest rate at which a flickering source of light appears to be flickering as opposed to being steady. It has a number of determinants including the luminance, wave-length, wave-form, and light-dark ratio of the stimulating light, the area, position, and light-adapted state of the retina illuminated, the duration of exposure, and the size of the pupil. Age and constitutional factors may also influence the threshold, and recently the importance of intersensory effects and previous adaptation to intermittent light have been emphasized (Turner 1965a, b). Cff has been used as a test of central nervous activity in response to drugs for many years. Central Depressant Drugs.-Alcohol produces a marked depression of cff which is proportional to the alcohol concentration in blood and urine (Bernhard and Skoglund, 1941; Goldberg, 1943; Enzer, Simonson, and Ballard, 1944). Bjerver and Goldberg (1950) found that driving performance and cff were both impaired at similar concentrations of blood alcohol, and Rokseth and Lorentzen (1954) showed that hypoxia increased the depressant action of alcohol on cff. Barbiturate drugs produce depression of cff (Roback, Krasno, and Ivy, 1952; Idestrom, 1954) and Idestrom and Cadenius (1963) obtained dose response effects with 150, 300, and 450 mg. amylobarbitone. Meprobamate in doses of 400 mg. and above, and chlordiazep-oxide 40 mg. and above have been shown to impair cff (Aiba, 1959; Holland, 1960; Ide-strom, 1962; Idestrom and Cadenius, 1963). Pollack, Karp, Krauthamer, Klein, and Fink (1961) showed that chlorpromazine depressed cff but in doses of 300-1,200 mg. daily. Holland and Gooch (1962) found that cff fell in direct relation to the proportion of N20 in a nitrous oxide/oxygen mixture administered to five subjects. Central Stimulant Drugs.-Although central depressant drugs readily impair cff, stimulant drugs are less predictable in their effects. While Simonson and Brozek (1952) claimed that amphetamine 10-15 mg. produced a rise, Ikeda (1960) found only a slight and insignificant increase with 10 mg. and Aiba (1963) did not obtain a significant effect on mean threshold. Roback and ohers (1952) found that dexamphetamine 5 mg. prevented the depression of cff produced by antihistamine drugs. Results with caffeine have been variable (Simonson and Brozek, 1952; Roback and others, 1952). Keeler (1963) claimed that psilocybin produced consistentincreasesincff, and Larson, Finnegan, and Haag (1950) and Warwick and Eysenck (1963) showed that nicotine taken orally or in cigarettes produced a rise in threshold. * Received for publication January 24, 1967. t Address for reprints: As above, London, E.CI. 245 Adaptation to Intermittent Light In an attempt to increase the sensitivity of the method of measuring cffin order to obtain changes with modest therapeutic doses of centrally-acting drugs, the influence of adaptation to intermittent light was studied. Simonson (1959) noted that exposure to a flickering light below cffproduced a fall in cff, and Alpern and Sugiyama (1961) found that cff was elevated by first exposing the eye to a light source with an intermittency greater than the cif and lowered by pre-exposure to a light of lower frequency. In a further series of experiments (Turner, 1964; 1965a, b) it was shown that there was a linear relationship between cff and adapting frequencies between values of 24 and 54 c/s of the latter. As exposure of one eye to the adapting light altered the cff of the contralateral unexposed eye, the changes in cff appeared to be central and not peripheral in origin. This adaptation phenomenon appeared to be very stable and not influenced by hyperventilation or rebreathing (Turner, 1965a), by changes in the light-dark ratio or wave-length of the light source, or by the state of luminance of the opposite eye, factors which influence cff itself (Turner, Patterson, and Smart, 1966). It was also noted (Turner and Smart, 1964) that intermittent auditory stimuli of varying frequency modified visual cff. A technique of measuring cff was developed, in which ascending and descending thresholds of cff were determined after exposure for 1 minute to intermittent light of 25 or 50 c/s, thus giving four readings at any one time. The effects of drugs on mean threshold and on adaptation could thus be statistically assessed. The light source was a neon lamp of luminance 350 lumens/m.2 exposing an area of 0f64 cm.2, driven by a rectangular pulse generator (Solartron Pulse Generator Type GO 1101.2) with a mark-space ratio of 1:1, and the experiments were carried out in the light-adapted state under constant conditions of illumination. In a series of experiments, single therapeutic doses of centrally-acting drugs were given to normal volunteer subjects of both sexes between the ages of 20 and 30 years. The effects of these agents on cff were compared in the same subjects with those of identical placebo tablets under double-blind conditions, and the results submitted to analysis of variance. They were considered statistically significant if their P values were equal to or less than 0 05. Results
Herblin, W. F., & O’Brien, R. D. (1968). Interactions of norepinephrine with subcellular fractions of rat brain I. Characteristics of norepinephrine uptake. Brain Research
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(68)90050-4
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“The uptake of exogenous norepinephrine by subcellular fractions of rat brain has been investigated in a sucroseNaClTris buffer medium. Although the uptake of norepinephrine has been shown to be a temperature-dependent process, these studies were run at 0-4°C so that the results would be compatible with subsequent binding experiments. The uptake of this catecholamine which occurs at 0-4°C is inhibited by pyrogallol, bufotenin, and ergotamine, and is activated by serotonin and psilocybin. Plots of norepinephrine uptake as a function of the equilibrium norepinephrine concentration have indicated that the uptake of norepinephrine is a multicomponent phenomenon, and this is supported by inhibition data. One component appears to be associated with the microsomal fraction and is inhibited by serotonin, pyrogallol, and ergotamine, and activated by psilocybin. A second component appears to be associated with nerve-ending particles and exhibits a very similar drug profile. A third component also appears to be associated with nerve-ending particles and is inhibited by ergotamine but activated by bufotenin, serotonin, and psilocybin. © 1968.
Agurell, S., & Nilsson, J. L. G. (1968). Biosynthesis of psilocybin. Acta Chemica Scandinavica
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“The biosynthesis of psilocybin has been investigated by feeding labelled precursors to Psilocybe cubensis. The following specifically labelled compounds were synthesized: psilocin-3H, 4-hydroxytryptamine-14C, N,N-dimethyltryptamine-14C and -14C-3H, N-methyltryptamine-14C-3H and DL-tryptophan-3H. A number of other insoles were labelled by acid catalyzed exchange in tritiated water. The experimental data suggest a sequence: tryptophan > tryptamine > N-methyltryptamine > N,N-dimethyltryptamine > psilocin > psilocybin. The fungus can also by an alternative route convert 4-hydroxytryptamine to psilocybin. Large differences in the rate of absorption of different closely related precursors has been observed.
Duke, R. B., & Keeler, M. H. (1968). The effects of Psilocybin, dextro???amphetamine and placebo on performance of the trail making test. Journal Of Clinical Psychology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/1097-4679(196807)24:3<316::AID-JCLP2270240310>3.0.CO;2-G
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Agurell, S., Lars, J., & Nilsson, G. (1968). A biosynthetic sequence from tryptophan to psilocybin. Tetrahedron Letters
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0040-4039(01)98891-4
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Heim, E., Heimann, H., & Lukács, G. (1968). Die psychische Wirkung der mexikanischen Droge “Ololiuqui” am Menschen. Psychopharmacologia
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF00401617
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“The alkaloids of the third magic mexican drug “Ololiuqui” – chemically closely related to LSD 25 – were studied in normal subjects in a laboratorysituation. A standardized method (developed and applied before in testing other psychotomimetic drugs) included the following procedure: A short interview taken every 45 min was registered on sound-movie and then analyzed for changes in expression and motor behaviour. A battery of psychometric tests also given every 45th minute was studied for trend-changes over time. Finally, symptoms reported by the subjects were divided into 8 categories, reflecting a spectrum going from autonomic side-effects to psychotic symptoms and alteration of consciousness. The results indicate that the effect of the two major compounds, d-lysergicacid-amide and d-iso-lysergic-acid-amide, determine the effect of the total alkaloids of Ololiuqui. With d-lysergic-acid-amide the clinical picture was one of intoxication with strong autonomic side-effects; with d-iso-lysergic-acid-amide euphoria synesthesia and altered time experience were observed. In small doses the response to total-alkaloids resembled that of d-iso-lysergic-acid-amide; in higher doses it resembled that of d-lysergic-acid-amide, i.e. a heavy intoxication with reduced consciousness and autonomic side-effects. Overall, there was little difference between the total alkaloids and the compounds of Ololiuqui. Psychometric tests taken at each 45-min-phase also reflected the progressive intoxication: the performance in each of the five tests measuring the ability to concentrate was increasingly reduced, as compared to placebo-subjects, during the time of observation. This is in contrast to observations on Psilocybin: here the psychometric results were worst after the first 45-min-phase, whereas changes in expression and motor behaviour were greatest in the last of the phases, i.e. after 2-3 hours. Not only are there no phase-dependent alterations with qualitative modification of the effects in Ololiuqui as compared with Psilocybin; in addition there was little evidence of typical alteration in consciousness and hallucinations as typically seen with psychotomimetic drugs like LSD 25 and Psilocybin. In conclusion, Ololiuqui tested in normal subjects in a standard laboratorysituation lacks the characterictics of the typical psychotomimetic drugs. It resembles more drugs like scopolamine and ibogalin, inducing a toxic-psychosis. ? 1968 Springer-Verlag.
1967
Uyeno, E. T. (1967). Effects of mescaline and psilocybin on dominance behavior of the rat. Archives Internationales De Pharmacodynamie Et De Thérapie
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/PHAR.1014
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“Published case reports have documented the relationship between exenatide use and acute kidney injury. However, to our knowledge, no cases of this adverse effect with liraglutide, another glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist approved for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus, have been reported. We describe a 53-year-old Caucasian woman who came to a community hospital with severe and progressively worsening gastrointestinal symptoms for several weeks, leading to dehydration and development of acute kidney injury. Laboratory results showed an increase in her serum creatinine concentration to 22.8 mg/dl and blood urea nitrogen to 150 mg/ dl; she also had lost 8.9 kg in the previous month. One month earlier, the patient had begun liraglutide 1.8 mg/day subcutaneously for uncontrolled type 2 diabetes. Use of the Naranjo adverse drug reaction probability scale indicated a possible relationship (score of 3) between the patient’s development of acute kidney injury and liraglutide. Renal biopsy and laboratory testing were helpful in ruling out other potential causes of renal failure and adverse drug reactions due to other drugs such as ciprofloxacin and quinapril. After the reports of the renal biopsy were obtained, liraglutide was determined to be a likely cause of acute tubular necrosis. The patient was successfully treated with discontinuation of liraglutide, volume repletion, and hemodialysis. To our knowledge, this is the first documented case of liraglutide-induced acute tubular necrosis. Clinicians should be aware of this possible complication and closely follow liraglutide’s dosage titration recommendations in the package insert. Patients should also be educated about the need to report unusual or prolonged gastrointestinal symptoms.
Corne, S. J., & Pickering, R. W. (1967). A possible correlation between drug-induced hallucinations in man and a behavioural response in mice. Psychopharmacologia
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF00401509
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“The production of head-twitches in mice appears to be a suitable laboratory test for predicting whether a compound is likely to be hallucinogenic in man. This is based on the following findings: 1. With the exception of acetyl-lysergic acid diethylamide and nalorphine, hallucinogenic drugs induced head-twitches in mice. 2. Chemically related compounds which are not hallucinogenic did not induce head-twitches with the exception of 5-HTP, ergometrine, α-ethylmescaline and DMPE. It is suggested that these 4 drugs might produce hallucinations if they were given in high enough doses. 3. There is a good correlation between drug-induced hallucinations in man and drug-induced head-twitches in mice in terms of dose/kg. 4. Chlorpromazine, haloperidol, tetrahydroaminacrine and monoamine-oxidase inhibitors can antagonize hallucinations in man. These same compounds antagonised head-twitches induced in mice by the appropriate hallucinogens. 5. Cross-tolerance has been demonstrated between LSD and mescaline LSD and psilocybin and LSD and DMT in man. Mescaline, psilocybin and DMT also antagonised LSD-induced head-twitches in mice.
Snyder, S. H., Faillace, L., & Hollister, L. (1967). 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl-amphetamine (STP): A new hallucinogenic drug. Science
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1126/science.158.3801.669
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“We have assessed the effects in normal control volunteers of 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl-amphetamine, the chemical present in the hallucinogenic drug STP, in two independent trials. In low doses, this compound produces a mild euphoria. Doses greater than 3 milligrams may cause pronounced hallucinogenic effects lasting about 8 hours and similar to those produced by hallucinogenic doses of lysergic acid diethylamide, mescaline, and psilocybin. 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-methyl-amphetamine, which is chemically related to mescaline and amphetamine, is about 100 times more potent as a hallucinogen than mescaline and only one-thirtieth as potent as lysergic acid diethylamide. Its psychological effects are not accentuated by chlorpromazine.
Gilmour, L. P., & O’Brien, R. D. (1967). Psilocybin: Reaction with a fraction of rat brain. Science
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1126/science.155.3759.207
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“Psilocybin, a hallucinogen, formed a blue color with a subfraction of rat-brain mitochondria believed to contain nerve-ending particles. Color formation increased with pH, did not require oxygen, and involved a component that could not be solubilized. The effect was not shown by chemically related neuroactive compounds, such as bufotenine and serotonin, and was antagonized by only tyramine or ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid.
Johnsen, G., & Abrahamson, H. A. (1967). Indications for psycholytic treatment with different types of patients. The Use Of Lsd In Psychotherapy And Alcoholism. …
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“We have been working at Modum Bads Nervesanatorium in Norway with psycholytic treatment using LSD 25, Psilocybin and CZ 74 for almost four years. About 200 patients have undergone approximately 1500 treatments. Our reason for beginning this program was the challenge presented by many patients who resisted all other forms of treatment. Arendsen Hein has excellently described the challenge in constantly searching for new methods to help these patients. Compulsive neurotics, sexual perversions, character neuroses and psychopathic disorders as a whole are particular problems. By degrees we have arrived at the following indications and methods of treatment.
1966
Heim, R., Genest, K., Hughes, D. W., & Belec, G. (1966). Botanical and Chemical Characterisation of a Forensic Mushroom Specimen of the Genus Psilocybe. Journal Of The Forensic Science Society
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0015-7368(66)70336-3
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“A sample of mushroom seized by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police in Vancouver was shown by morphological examination to be a species of Psilocybe, a genus known to contain psychotomimetic principles. Chemical tests proved the presence of psilocybin (1.5% of the dried mushroom) as well as several other indole alkaloids. Psilocin could not be detected. Procedures suitable for routine examination of similar samples are described. ?? 1966, Forensic Science Society. All rights reserved.
Fischer, R., & Mead, E. L. (1966). Time contraction and psychomotor performance produced by ‘Psilocybin’ [49]. Nature
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/209433a0
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Hebbard, F. W., & Fischer, R. (1966). Effect of Psilocybin, LSD, and mescaline on small, involuntary eye movements. Psychopharmacologia
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF00404719
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“Investigates the influence of Psilocybin, LSD, mescaline, or alcohol on physiological nystagmus. 1100 eye-movement records served as control data. In 242 sessions, a significant, dose dependent increase in frequency and, to some extent, amplitude of saccades was found after oral administration of 10-15 mg. of Psilocybin, 120 micrograms of LSD, or 450 mg. of mescaline. These 3 drugs produced a characteristics square-wave pattern of saccades distinctively dissimilar from the sawtooth pattern produced by alcohol. There was no difference between the control and placebo patterns. (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved)
Adams, J. E., Williams, B. F., & Hewitt, R. R. (1966). Measurement of nuclear magnetic resonance with quadrupolar and dipolar broadening in polycrystalline samples. Physical Review
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1103/PhysRev.151.238
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“Substance abuse is a major health and behavioral concern in college students. Alcohol and marijuana are the most commonly abused drugs on college campuses. Others include tobacco, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, gamma-hydroxybutyrate, flunitrazepam (Rohypnol), lysergic acid, ketamine, methamphetamine, phencyclidine, cocaine, and psilocybin mushrooms. This article reviews the use of these drugs by college students. Substance use is a major contributing factor in poor academic performance and failure to successfully complete a college education. Alcohol Approximately 80% of college students drink alcohol and over 40% of college students are heavy episodic (binge) drinkers; binge drinking is usually defined as having 5 or more drinks in a row for men and 4 or more drinks for women. Although their noncollegiate peers drink more often, college students tend to drink more heavily when they do drink [1,2]. Indeed, college students binge drink more often than age-matched peers and focus on ”drinking to get drunk” more than other 18-to 22-year olds [3]. Drinking rates vary by living arrangement. Rates are highest in fraternities and sororities, followed by on-campus housing (eg, dormitories, residence halls)
1965
Keeler, M. H., & Doehne, E. F. (1965). Consistency of psilocybin induced changes in the minnesota multiphasic personality inventory. Journal Of Clinical Psychology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/1097-4679(196507)21:3<284::AID-JCLP2270210319>3.0.CO;2-C
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Ludwig, A. M., & Levine, J. (1965). Patterns of Hallucinogenic Drug Abuse. Jama: The Journal Of The American Medical Association
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1001/jama.1965.03080020020006
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“This report of hallucinogenic drug abuse is based on extensive interviews with 26 patients who have used these drugs and 1 patient who had intimate knowledge of their illicit use. The most frequently abused substance was found to be peyote, followed closely by mescaline, with LSD and psilocybin far less frequently used. Availability of these agents was sporadic and, in general, limited to large cities. Their distribution, economics, and pattern of use were different than those of the opiate drugs, and the greatest number of people who abused them also used marijuana, amphetamines, and barbiturates. The hallucinogenic drugs’ addiction potential, dangers, and influence on sexual function are also reported. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved)
Zakupra, V. A., Lebedev, E. V., & Manza, I. A. (1965). Chromatographic analysis of products from the cracking and dehydrogenation of paraffin hydrocarbons. Chemistry And Technology Of Fuels And Oils
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF00731418
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“Background: Our research team have conducted a series of MRI and MEG studies with the 5HT2A receptor agonist psilocybin in comparison with MDMA, an entactogen that releases 5HT. The MRI studies of psilocybin (both ASL and fMRI) revealed unexpected reduction in brain blood flow and a decrease in BOLD signal (Carhart-Harris et al 2013 PNAS) in high-level cortical regions and the thalamus, with post-hoc analysis showing large increases in brain connectivity between, rather than within, the usual resting state networks (Petri et al J Roy Soc 2014). The cortical psilocybin MRI findings were confirmed by a later MEG study that revealed a major loss of power in all measured frequency bands (1-100Hz) after psilocybin with decreases in alpha power in the posterior cingulate cortex correlating with egodissolution measures (Carhart-Harris and Muthukumaraswamy et al 2013 J Neurosci). Results from the fMRI and MEG work suggested psilocybin has antidepressant properties and from these we are now conducting the first study of psilocybin in resistant depression. Data from a pilot phase will be ready for the ACNP meeting. MDMA also decreased blood flow and BOLD signal but the effects were largely subcortical, particularly in the amygdala, and no psychedelic effects were seen (Carhart-Harris et al 2014 Biol Psych). Negative memories were attenuated and positive ones enhanced by MDMA and these effects were associated with fMRI-measured changes in brain activity (Carhart-Harris et al 2013 Int Neuropychopharm). LSD is the prototypical hallucinogen, with much greater use than the others in psychiatric and research settings, with over 1000 papers published before it was banned in 1967. Since then, and only in the past year, there have been 3 research reports, but none using modern brain imaging methods. Methods: Over the course of 6 hours, 20 healthy volunteers were scanned sequentially with ASL/BOLD-fMRI/ and MEG following 75 microgm LSD iv or saline placebo in a crossover design at least 2 weeks apart. Subjective ratings of psychedelic experiences were then correlated with the imaging data. Twelve patients with resistant depression were treated with two sessions of psilocybin. Significant improvements in symptom severity were observed for up to 5 weeks post-treatment, with a far greater before and (1 week) after treatment effect size (Cohen’s d = 3.4) than seen with currently available anti-depressant interventions. Results: LSD decreased integrity and segregation of brain networks and this effect correlated with subjective ratings of changes in consciousness, including ego-dissolution. Increased functional connectivity between the visual cortex and high-level cortical regions correlated strongly with ratings of visual hallucinations. Patients treated with psilocybin for resistant depression have shown marked improvements in the symptom severity post-treatment. Conclusions: The LSD data and our three prior psilocybin studies show that 5HT2A agonist hallucinogens provoke profound changes in consciousness due to decreased integrity of brain networks and a decrease in betweennetwork segregation found in resting state measures, leading to a more chaotic or “entropic” brain state. These effects may also explain the utility of these drugs in addiction and mood disorders. The psilocybin for depression findings suggest that psilocybin is a safe and effective treatment for severe depression.
Leung, A. Y., Smith, A. H., & Paul, A. G. (1965). Production of psilocybin in Psilocybe baeocystis saprophytic culture. Journal Of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/jps.2600541104
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“The carpophores of six species of mushrooms were analyzed by TLC for indole derivatives. Three species, Psilocybe baeocystis, P. caerulipes, and P. stricttipes, were found to contain psilocybin, and traces of psilocin were found to occur in the first two species. Neither compound could be detected in P. atrobrunnea, Stropharia aeruginosa, or S. semiglobata. Psilocybin has been isolated from P. baeocystis grown in submerged culture and identified by TLC, melting point, and ultraviolet and infrared spectra. Thin-layer chromatographic data for 36 indole derivatives in five solvent systems are included.
Abramson, H. A., & Rolo, A. (1965). XXXVIII. Comparison with action of methysergide and psilocybin on test subjects. Journal Of Asthma
Plain numerical DOI: 10.3109/02770906509106904
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Metzner, R., Litwin, G. H., & Weil, G. M. (1965). The Relation of Expectation and Mood to Psilocybin Reactions: A Questionnaire Study. Psychedelic Review
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“In the rapidly growing literature on the effects of the “hallucinogenic” or “consciousness-altering” drugs increasing attention is being paid to the role of non-pharmacological variables. Several authors have pointed to the importance of personality variables in determin- ing drug reactions, and recently these have become the object of systematic study (e.g., Kornetsky and Humphries, 1957: von Fei- singer, Lasagna and Beecher, 1955; DiMascio, Rinkel and Leiber- man, 1961). Others have emphasized the importance of the physical and social environment (e.g., Hyde, 1960) and the attitude and expectations of the researcher (e.g., Malitz et al., 1960). The role of these non-drug factors in drug-reaction patterns has recently been reviewed through extracts from the literature by DiMascio and Klerman (1960) and Unger (1963).
1964
D., U. A. K. B., J., K., & VyhnankovaM,. (1964). Trials with psilocybin administration in organic cerebra amage. v. significance and value of psilocybin in clinical neur ology (german). Acta Univ. Palack. Olomucensis
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“Besides in experimental neurology, this drug, in small doses, may be of therapeutic value in cases of anxiety and depression accompanying organic brain lesions, and in speech rehabilitation of some forms of T)hsia.
1963
Knoll, M., Kugler, J., Höfer, O., & Lawder, S. D. (1963). Effects of Chemical Stimulation of Electrically-Induced Phosphenes on their Bandwidth, Shape, Number and Intensity. Stereotactic And Functional Neurosurgery
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1159/000104299
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“The perception of patterns not resulting from viewing external objects but stimulated by cranial electrodes with pulse currents within the electroencephalographic frequency range (‘phosphenes’) has been investigated in earlier work. The experiments described in this paper were undertaken to observe in one subject effects of chemical stimulation (by mescaline, psilocybin and LSD) on electrically-induced phosphenes as to their bandwidth, shape, number and intensity. An increase of two electrically-induced ‘control’ patterns in intensity and bandwidth and the production of a great number of new phosphene patterns with large bandwidth and intensity have been observed. These new drug-induced phosphenes prevailed during simultaneous electrical and maximum chemical stimulation (Fig. 22). From the experimental results a cybernetic model of a pulse-driven phosphene resonator can be derived.
Hartman, A. M., & Hollister, L. E. (1963). Effect of mescaline, lysergic acid diethylamide and psilocybin on color perception. Psychopharmacologia
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF00403349
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“Enhanced color perception and vividly colored visual hallucinations are frequently reported by persons treated with psyehotomimetie drugs (KLt~vE~ 1942; LANDIS and CLAVSON, 1954; A]3~A~SO~ et al., 1955a; A]3RAMSON et al., 1955b). These findings are not explained readily by neurophysiologie or psychophysiologie studies of the action of these drugs. In this respect, the vivid and unusual experiences of color asso-ciated with lysergic acid diethylanfide (LSD-25) or mescaline intoxi-cation seem paradoxical in view of evidence of increased thresholds for axonal response beyond the thalamic synapses (EvARTS, 1955; BISHOP, 1958), and demonstrations of increased absolute and differential limens for vision (CARLSOn, 1958). If anything, these data suggest that the marked visual effects associated with the action of the psychotomimetie drugs are not due to increased sensitivity to the normally adequate stimuli for color visual experience. Some clues to this apparent paradox are provided by the facilitating effects of sensory input from other modalities on the perception of visual hallucinations, commonly referred to as synesthesia. In such cases, perceptual responses may be evoked by stimuli which ordinarily evoke a separate sensory response, for example, sounds evoking colored patterns. One might hypothesize that some psychotomimetics interfere with the normal integration of experience within specific sensory modalities. The way we chose to test this hypothesis was to study the effects of stim-uli varying in degree of adequacy for evoking color experience, both before and during the administration of three psyehotomimetie drugs. The stimuli employed included those directly involving color perception (discrimination of hues and reports of colors of after-images), those usually marginal in terms of color experience (gazing at an episcotister),
Leary, T., Litwin, G. H., & Metzner, R. (1963). Reactions to psilocybin administered in a supportive environment. Journal Of Nervous And Mental Disease
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1097/00005053-196312000-00007
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Leary, T., & Clark, W. H. (1963). Religious implications of consciousness expanding drugs. Religious Education
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/0034408630580302
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“Relationship of drug-induced openness to religious stimuli based on administration of psilocybin to over 400 volunteers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Zsigmond, E. K., Foldes, V. M., & Foldes, F. F. (1963). The in vitro inhibitory effect of psilocybin and related compounds on human cholinesterases. Psychopharmacologia
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF02584093
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“Multiparous, spring-calving beef females (n = 355) were utilized during three production years to study the effects of postpartum nutritional management on subsequent fertility and calf pro- duction. At critical times in the production cycle, a body condition score (BCS), using a numerical score ranging from 1 = emaciated to 9 = extremely fat, was assigned to each animal. Cows were maintained prepartum to calve with BCS 4 to 7. Following parturition cows were allotted to 1 of 4 nutritional regimens: high (H), moderate (M), low (L) or low-flush (LF). Postpartum nutritional management had no effect on interval to estrus (ITE) or interval to pregnancy (ITP). However, mean ITE was 61 vs 49 d (P<.01) and mean ITP was 90 vs 84 d (P<.05) for cows calving with BCS ~<4 or />5, respectively. Body condition at calving was the most important factor influencing early return to estrus and pregnancy. High levels of nutrition in the postpartum period did not increase cumulative percent in estrus or pregnant if cows calved in BCS ~5. Within BCS ~<4 at calving, cumulative percent exhibiting estrus by d 20, 40 and 60 of the breeding period was higher when cows were in the H, M, and LF groups. Cumulative percent pregnant by 20 d after breeding was not affected by nutritional management. However, more cows in the H, M, LF groups that calved with BCS ~<4 became pregnant by 40 and 60 d after breeding when compared with similar cows in the L group (P<.05). Within BCS ~<4 at calving, cows that lost weight early in the postpartum period and were flushed had a higher first service pregnancy rate than similar cows in the L group (P<.06). Cows that were fed to lose weight throughout the first 30 d of breeding (L) weaned lighter calves than cows that maintained (M) or gained (H) weight, or that were flushed (LF) during the postpartum period (P<.01). (Key
1962
Böszörményi, Z. (1962). Über die psychotherapiefördernde wirkung einiger halluzinogener substanzen. Psychotherapy And Psychosomatics
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1159/000285643
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“The use of hallucinogens in psychotherapy has been increasing more and more during the last two decades. The author is reporting comparative studies with 3 drugs: diethyltryptamine, psilocybin and LSD-25 given to 160 normals, neurotics and psychotics. Diethyltryptamine has been useful in breaking through autism, but psilocybin was better for exploration and oneirosynthesis in neurotics. LSD in doses given here has been involving the patients the most, but therapeutic success was most likely. The model psychosis brought psychotherapeutic success unexpectedly in several of the so-called normal persons studied. This has been illustrated on hand of several examples. © 1962 S. Karger AG, Basel.
Boszormenyi, Z. (1962). On the effect of some hallucinogen drugs in furthering psychotherapy. Egyes Hallucinogen Anyagok Pszichoterapiat Elosegito Hatasarol.
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“Reports on comparative use of 3 hallucinogen drugs; diethyltryptamin, psilocybin, and LSD-25. DET helped a great deal in breaking through autistic behavior patterns in psychotics, but did not seem to achieve a desired effect on neurotics. On the contrary, in many cases, it heightened anxiety and the hyperamnesia after the administration. Psilocybin was seen to be excellent in breaking through contact difficulties and inhibitions. The psychic exploration of anxiety and compulsive neurotics was greatly enhanced by psilocybin. LSD-25 had the greatest vegetative reaction on the patients but helped to break the patient’s isolation, even in cases where the other 2 drugs were inaffective. Notes that a great number of volunteers who came for the experiment, did this in order to receive indirect psychiatric help. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
Boszormenyi, Z. (1962). The psychotherapeutic beneficial effects of certain hallucinogens. Uber Die Psychotherapifordernde Wirkung Einiger Halluzinogenen Substanzen.
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“Comparative studies of the effects of diethyltryptamine, psilocybin, and LSD-25 were carried out on 160 normal, neutrotic, and psychotic persons. The 1st is effective in breaking through autisms, the 2nd for exploration and oneirosynthesis in neurotics, the 3rd for greatest patient involvement and therapeutic success. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
MAXWELL, G. M., KNEEBONE, G. M., & ELLIOTT, R. B. (1962). The effect of psilocybin upon the systemic, pulmonary, and coronary circulation of the intact dog. Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn.
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/9781118346174.ch3
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“The principal factor controlling the safety of a refrigerated (chilled or frozen) food is its temperature. In many cases the time taken to reach the desired temperature is also important. To provide safe refrigerated food products of high organoleptic quality, attention must be paid to every aspect of the cold chain from initial chilling or freezing of the raw ingredients, through storage and transport, to retail display. The cold chain consists of two distinct types of operation. In processes such as primary and secondary chilling or freezing the aim is to change the average temperature of the food. In others, such as chilled or frozen storage, transport and retail display, the prime aim is to maintain the temperature of the food. Removing the required amount of heat from a food is a difficult, time- and energy-consuming operation, but critical to the operation of the cold chain. As a food moves along the cold chain it becomes increasingly difficult to control and maintain its temperature. This is because the temperatures of bulk packs of refrigerated product in large storerooms are far less sensitive to small heat inputs than single consumer packs in open display cases or in a domestic refrigerator/freezer. This chapter describes and explains the technologies used to produce and ensure the safety of chilled and frozen foods and maintain the cold chain. © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Horita, A., & Weber, L. J. (1962). Dephosphorylation of psilocybin in the intact mouse. Toxicology And Applied Pharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0041-008X(62)90102-3
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“The administration of psilocybin (4-phosphoryl-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) to mice resulted in the accumulation of its 4-hydroxy analog, psilocin, in the kidney, liver, and brain. Highest concentrations in kidney and liver were found within 10-20 minutes and brain levels reached a peak at 25-30 minutes after administration of psilocybin. Behavioral effects, characterized by piloerection, exophthalmos, and motor incoordination, closely followed the increase in brain levels of psilocin. In mice pretreated with large doses of sodium β-glycerophosphate, a substrate of alkaline phosphatase, the administration of psilocybin resulted in much lower increases in tissue psilocin levels as compared to controls, and the behavioral effects were correspondingly attenuated. The accumulation of tissue psilocin after administration of psilocin did not differ significantly in control or β-glycerophosphate-pretreated mice. Correspondingly, no difference in the intensity of the behavioral effects could be observed in control and glycerophosphate-pretreated mice. The results of this study demonstrate the rapid dephosphorylation of psilocybin by the intact mouse. Evidence is also presented that the central nervous system effects of psilocybin are exerted only after its transformation to the 4-hydroxy analog, psilocin. © 1962.
1961
Heimann, H. (1961). [Expressive phenomenology of model psychoses (psilocybin). Comparison with self-description and psychic deficiency of performance]. Psychiatria Et Neurologia
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00363-X
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“In the experiments reported here, female subjects were presented with reasoning tasks that changed from solvable to unsolvable, evoking “learned helplessness” or “loss of control” reactions in some subjects. Significant differences in slow cortical potential (SCP) changes were found between emotionally highly and lowly reactive subjects (grouped according to responses in postexperimental questionnaires) when processing unsolvable tasks. Cortical LORETA of SCP topographies and subsequent statistical nonparametric mapping (SnPM; analysis indicate clear reduction of anterior cingulate activity only with emotionally highly reactive subjects. In these subjects a region of the brain that is indispensable for goal-directed handling of tasks was switched off, whereas regions that are primarily engaged in processing the task stimuli were even more active during loss of control, although not at a statistically significant level. According to the anterior cingulate monitors the conflicts among brain regions and issues calls for further processing to the PFC that then guides behavior toward a goal. Learned helplessness might then be seen a state in which the function of the anterior cingulate is no longer maintained, perhaps due to the inhibitory influence of the amygdala possibly mediated via the brainstem dopaminergic ventral tegmental area.
Sercl, M., Kovarik, J., & Jaros, O. (1961). Klinische erfahrungen mit psilocybin (CY 39 sandoz). European Neurology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1159/000131157
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Holfeld, H. (1961). Psychophysische korrelationen unter der einwirkung von psycholytika (LSD, psilocybin und ähnl.). Pharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1159/000135082
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“This paper presents a theoretical and experimental study of the exchange of fluids of different densities through an opening. Three types of openings are examined: a bottom opening (the opening is at the bottom of a gate), a middle opening (in the middle) and a window opening (the opening is in the middle but does not extend across the width). Simultaneous measurements of velocity field and interface position were obtained using flow visualization and image processing techniques. Experimental results confirm the predictions of the internal hydraulic theory that there are two internal hydraulic controls in the flow through bottom openings, but one control in the middle and window opening experiments. The neglect of non-hydrostatic forces and interfacial mixing in the theory, however, results in a significant underestimate of the exchange rate by more than 50 % in the middle and window opening experiments. The fluctuations in the interface position were caused by Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities as well as basin-scale internal seiche, and the transition of internally supercritical flow to subcritical flow was caused by the mixing generated by these instabilities.
1960
Chandler, A. L., & Hartman, M. A. (1960). Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25) as a Facilitating agent in psychotherapy. A.m.a. Archives Of General Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.1960.03590090042008
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“Our use of drug-facilitated psychotherapy has been to aid repressed material to be- come conscious and to increase insight. Any method or tool which facilitates these proc- esses has the possibility of being a valuable psychotherapeutic tool. Certain drugs on which we have done research, such as mes- caline, ALD-52, ibogaine, psilocybin, Ditran (N-ethyl-3-piperidyl cyclopentylphenyl gly- colate HC1), and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25), have the capacity to broaden the patient’s spectrum of awareness. If a pa- tient uses this enhanced capacity to look in- ward, he is often enabled, particularly in the case of LSD-25, to see and experience many affects, childhood memories, conflicts, and impulse strivings which were previously blotted out by the repressive forces. The present study was conducted in an at- tempt further to evaluate the use of LSD-25 as an aid to psychotherapy and to develop procedures and techniques for its most effec- tive utilization with those patients for whom it appears most appropriate.
Malitz, S., Esecover, H., Wilkens, B., & Hoch, P. H. (1960). Some observations on psilocybin, a new hallucinogen, in volunteer subjects. Comprehensive Psychiatry
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0010-440X(60)80045-4
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“Fourteen paid volunteers, sereened by clinical interviews, received Psilocybin orally over a dosage range of 8 to 36 mg. The perceptual, affective, cognitive, behavioral and autonomic responses observed were qualitatively similar to those previously described with d-LSD-25, but quantitatively, a greater impairment of cognition with Psilocybin was noted which may have been related to dosage or personality differences. EEG findings in four out of eight subjects were similar to those previously reported with d-LSD-25 and mescaline. The use of psychotomimetic drugs as therapeutic agents in an out-patient setting may prove potentially hazardous. Acute states of excitement, depression with suicidal ideation and impairment of judgment may occur with these drugs even in the most carefully supervised in-patient setting. With out-patients, the danger of self-administration and inadequate supervision could compound such occurrences. Further research is indicated regarding the site of action of hallucinogens, the relationship between personality, dosage level and total behavioral pattern, and the possible prognostic value of such drugs in assessing ego strength in specific individuals. © 1960 Grune & Stratton, Inc.
1959
Monnier, M. (1959). Action de la Psilocybine sur le cerveau du lapin. Experientia
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF02158550
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“Psilocybin, the by-product of which ‘Psilocin] has been identified as 4-hydroxy-dimethyl-tryptamine (4-HTP) develops in the waking rabbit a marked activation of the somatic behaviour and of the electrical brain activity. This stimulating action is due to a depression of the mediothalamic recruiting and moderating system rather than to an activation of the reticular arousal system. The electrophysiological effects of 4-HTP are compared with those of 5-HTP. © 1959 Birkhäuser Verlag.
Isbell, H. (1959). Comparison of the reactions induced by psilocybin and LSD-25 in man. Psychopharmacologia
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF00408109
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“”The reaction induced by oral administration of 57 to 114 mcgm/kg of O-Phosphoryl-4-hydroxy-N-dimethyltryptamine (psilocybin) has been compared with that induced by a placebo and LSD-25 (1.0 to 1.5 mcmg/kg) in 9 subjects… . After both drugs, abnormal mental states characterized by feelings of strangeness, difficulty in thinking, anxiety, altered sensory perception (particularly visual), elementary and true visual hallucinations, and alterations of body image were reported by the subjects. The effects of psilocybin did not persist as long as those of LSD. LSD is 100 to 150 times as potent as psilocybin.” (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved)
Troxler, F., Seemann, F., & Hofmann, A. (1959). Análogos de Psilocybin und Psilocin. 2. Comunicación sobre compuestos de indol sintéticos. Helvetica Chimica Acta
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/hlca.19590420638
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“Various modifications were made in the molecular structure of the natural psychotropic substances psilocybin {(I)} and psilocin (11) to obtain an insight into the relationship between structure and psychotropic action of this group of substances. A description is given of the synthesis and properties of the position isomers of I and {II} with a phosphoryloxy or hydroxy group in position 5, 6 or 7, of the four isomeric hydroxygramines, and of a series of further derivatives of 4-hydroxy-indole in which the structure of {II} was systematically modified, i.e. psilocin derivatives with other substitution at the ω-nitrogen; derivatives of {II} substituted at the indole nitrogen; psilocin derivatives with one additional methylene group in the side-chain or with a methyl-substituted or hydroxylated side-chain; phosphoric acid esters of some derivatives of {II;} esters of {II} with organic carbonic and sulfonic acids, with methylcarbaminic and with sulfuric acid; position isomers of psilocin with the dimethylaminoethyl side-chain in position 1 or 2.
Monnier, M. (1959). [The action of psilocybin on the rabbit brain]. Experientia
Plain numerical DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02158550
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“Psilocybin, the by-product of which (‘psilocin’) has been identified as 4-hydroxydimethyl-tryptamine (4-HTP), develops in the waking rabbit a marked activation of the somatic behaviour and of the electrical brain activity. This stimulating action is due to a depression of the mediothalamic recruiting and moderating system rather than to an activation of the reticular arousal system. The electrophysiological effects of 4-HTP are compared with those of 5-HTP.
1958
Hofmann, A., Frey, A., Ott, H., Petrzilka, T., & Troxler, F. (1958). Determination of the Structure and Synthesis of Psilocybin. In Les champignons hallucinogenes du Mexique
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF02160424
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“The structure of Psilocybin, the psychotropic active principle of the Mexican mushroom Psilocybe mexicana Heim, has been elucidated. Psilocybin is the phosphoric acid ester of 4-hydroxy-dimethyltryptamine. This structure was confirmed by total synthesis.
Heim, R., & Hofmann, A. (1958). Isolement de la Psilocybine à partir du Stropharia cubensis Earle et d’autres espèces de champignons hallucinogènes mexicains appartenant au genre Psilocybe. Comptes Rendus Académie Des Sciences
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“Psilocybin was first isolated from Psilocybe mexicana Heim. The same method of extraction has since been employed to isolate Psilocybin from the dried carpophores of the following fungi: Psilocybe caerulescens Murr.var. Mazatecorum Heim; Psilocybe Zapotecorum Heim; Psilocybe Aztecorum Heim; Psilocybe semperviva Heim and Cailleuz; Stropharia cubensis Earle, of Mexican, Siamese and Cambodian origin. Thus, Psilocybin has been found not only in all Mexican species of Psilocybe studied but also in Stropharia cubensis from Mexicao and South-East Asia. The hallucinogenic effect of Stropharia cubensis has been previously reported.
H., W., & M., T. (1958). Pharmacology of psilocybin, a drug from psilocybe mexicana heim. Experientia
Plain numerical DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02159166
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“Psilocybin does not produce any characteristic effects on isolated organs, but in the intact mouse it causes mydriasis and piloerection in doses of not less than 10 mg./kg. s.c. In the unanaesthetized rabbit a dose of 1 mg./kg. i.v. suffices to cause mydriasis, tachycardia, tachypnoea and rise of temperature. The picture as a whole is that of central sympathetic stimulation, although the depression of motor activity does not agree with this.
Hofmann, A., Frey, A., Ott, H., Petrzilka, T., & Troxler, F. (1958). Konstitutionsaufkl??rung und Synthese von Psilocybin. Experientia
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/BF02160424
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“The structure of Psilocybin, the psychotropic active principle of the Mexican mushroom Psilocybe mexicana Heim, has been elucidated. Psilocybin is the phosphoric acid ester of 4-hydroxy-dimethyltryptamine. This structure was confirmed by total synthesis.
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