Psilocybin fungi taxonomies and their endemic habitat

“‘Magic mushrooms’ is the name most commonly given to psychoactive fungi containing the hallucinogenic components psilocybin and psilocin. material confiscated by local authorities was examined using morphologic, microscopic, microchemical, and toxicological methods. psilocybe cubensis was the most popular mushroom in the sample collective, followed by psilocybe semilanceata, panaeolus cyanescens and psilocybe tampanensis. the alkaloid content was determined with <0.003-1.15% of psilocybin and 0.01-0.90% psilocin. panaeolus cyanescens was the mushroom with highest levels of psilocybin and psilocin. copyright (c) 2000 elsevier science ireland ltd.”

“Mycelial cultures of psilocybe cubensis capable of forming psilocybin and psilocin de novo display a high capacity for hydroxylation of tryptamine derivatives at the 4-position. a specific biotransformation of added synthetic n,n-diethyl-tryptamine was found. thus high amounts of 4-hydroxy-n,n-diethyltryptamine (up to 3.3%) and a minor quantity of 4-phosphoryloxy-n,n-diethyltryptamine (0.01-0.8%) were isolated from fruiting bodies of psilocybe cubensis in corresponding experiments. this is the first example of a directed biosynthesis of tryptamine substances by fungi. an effective biotransformation of n-methyltryptamine was also demonstrated with surface cultures of psilocybe semilanceata. baeocystin, a possible natural precursor of psilocybin, was detected and quantified in the biomasses. no alkaloids could be found in the culture medium.”

“The use for hallucinogenic purposes of an indigenous mushroom, psilocybe semilanceata indigenous to britain is reported in three patients. typical psychedelic, transient psychotic and more prolonged schizophrenia-like states were seen, with sympathomimetic signs noted in two cases, in one being prolonged. enquiry about such mushroom abuse should be considered in individuals presenting to medical or psychiatric emergency clinics.”

“Eight species of psilocybe are reported from new zealand: p. argentina, p. aucklandii, p. coprophila, p. makarorae sp. nov., p. novae-zelandiae, p. semilanceata, p. subaeruginosa, and p. subcoprophila. of these, p. aucklandii, p. makarorae, p. subaeruginosa, and p. semilanceata stain blue-green with damage, a reaction characteristic of psilocybe species with hallucinogenic properties. descriptions and illustrations of all species are provided, with notes on their ecology and distribution, and a key for their identification. © 1995 taylor & francis group, llc.”

“Psilocybin is one of two hallucinogenic compounds obtained from teonanácatl, the sacred mushroom of mexico, the other being psilocin. although native americans in central and south america consumed psilocybe mushrooms for thousands of years, the first european record of their use was by a spanish priest in the 16th century who recorded their use by the aztec indians. in 1957, wasson published his own experience with the mushroom. this was soon followed by the isolation and recreational use of psilocybin, which was designated as a controlled substance in the united states in 1968. in the uk, psilocybin is present in the indigenous mushroom . psilocybe semilanceata (magic mushroom; liberty cap). other mushroom species, such as . stropharia cubensis and . conocybe spp, also contain psilocybin. psilocybin mushrooms are illegal in the united states because they contain the schedule i drugs psilocybin and psilocin. at high doses (5.0 g), psilocybin causes open eye hallucinations. the hallucinogenic and sympathomimetic properties of this agent can last for up to 6 hours. at lower doses (0.5-2.5 g), the user can experience cold chills, closed eye hallucinations, gas, and stomach cramps… © 2007 copyright © 2007 elsevier inc. all rights reserved..”

“Baeocystin and psilocybin were found in extracts of a variety of psilocybe semilanceata. psilocybin (but not baeocystin) was also detected in extracts of a related species, psilocybe pelliculosa. traces of psilocin were present in these two species. the structures of the isolated compounds were corroborated using mass spectrometry and uv spectroscopy.”

“The use of a hallucinogenic mushroom, psilocybe semilanceata, has been occasionally reported in finland, where the species is widely distributed. we have determined, by hplc, the content of psilocybin and psilocin in p. semilanceata samples collected from different parts of finland; the psilocybin content was found to be high (0.62-2.37%, mean 1.42% of dry weight), some samples also contained low concentrations (0.01-0.02% dry weight) of psilocin.”

“Psilocybe semilanceata contains hallucinogenic indole alkaloids and has been used as a narcotic drug in norway. the content of psilocybin, the major constituent in norwegian p. semilanceata, has been investigated as well as its habitats and its distribution throughout the country. the mushroom is growing on grassy sites in most parts of norway from the middle of august to the middle of october. the psilocybin content in dried mushrooms varied considerably, from 0.17 to 1.96%. the highest concentrations in percent was found among the smaller mushrooms whereas the content in mg was highest in larger mushrooms. the content of psilocybin makes p. semilanceata to a potent hallucinogenic drug.”

“Using high performance liquid and thin-layer chromatographic methods more than 100 species of fungi from europe belonging to 18 genera were analysed for the hallucinogenic compound psilocybin and for some related tryptamine derivatives. psilocybin, psilocin and/or baeocystin were found in 3 psilocybe 1 panaeolus, 5 inocybes and one pluteus. psilocybe semilanceata and panaeolus subbalteatus proved to be the only psilocybin-containing fungi that can be gathered in middle and northern europe in sufficient quantities to permit abuse.”

“Several specimens of psilocybe and copelandia species in koh samui, thailand were recently collected for herbarium deposit and scientific study. this paper presents an ethnomycological and biochemical study of one of the species; p. samuiensis guzmán, bandala and allen, a new psychoactive gill fungus reported from thailand. mycelium for the cultivation of p. samuiensis was obtained on 6% malt agar from the spores of a dried specimen. the growth of p. samuiensis was similar to that of p. tampanensis guzmán and pollock, but more rapid than the mycelium of p. semilanceata (fr.: sacc.) kumm. laboratory analyses indicates that the alkaloid content in cultured fruit bodies of p. samuiensis is of the same order of magnitude as that found in naturally occurring mushrooms of this species. hplc analyses of both naturally occurring and in vitro cultivated fruit bodies of p. samuiensis revealed high concentrations of psilocybin and psilocin. small amounts of baeocystin were also detected. psilocybin levels varied from 0.23% up to 0.90%. the psilocybin content was highest in the caps. psilocybin was also found in the cultured non-bluing mycelia of p. samuiensis and varied from 0.24% to 0.32% dry weight. the relative alkaloidal content of psilocybin, psilocin, and baeocystin found in p. samuiensis was similar to that measured in many other psychoactive fungi species, but completely different from that found in p. semilanceata. © 1994.”

“Psilocybin (o-phosphoryl-4-hydroxy- n,. n-dimethyltryptamine) and related compounds have been isolated from more than 150 species of mushroom but are primarily found in the following genera: psilocybe, panaeolus, gymnopilus. the species most commonly referenced in the literature are: psilocybe cubensis, psilocybe mexicana, psilocybe cyanescens, psilocybe semilanceata; panaeolus foenisecii; gymnopilus spectabilis; psathyrella foenisecii. the family of psilocybin-containing mushrooms grows in tropical and subtropical regions of south america, mexico, and the united states. hallucinogenic varieties of psilocybe were used by prehistoric peoples for religious and healing purposes. today most individuals consuming psilocybin mushrooms are intentionally seeking a psychedelic experience.”

“Sixty collections of ten species referred to three families of the agaricales have been analyzed for the presence of baeocystin by thin-layer chromatography. baeocystin was detected in collections of psilocybe, conocybe, and panaeolus from the u.s.a., canada, mexico, and peru. laboratory cultivated fruitbodies of psilocybe cubensis, p. semilanceata, and p. cyanescens were also studied. intra-species variation in the presence of decay rate of baeocystin, psilocybin and psilocin are discussed in terms of age and storage factors. in addition, evidence is presented to support the presence of 4-hydroxytryptamine in collections of p. baeocystis and p. cyanescens. the possible significance of baeocystin and 4-hydroxytryptamine in the biosynthesis of psilocybin in these organisms is discussed.”

“Psilocybe semilanceata significantly suppressed the growth, in dual culture, of many of the fungi isolated from the rhizosphere of grasses of its habitat. only trichoderma spp. markedly inhibited the growth of p. semilanceata. in liquid culture p. semilanceata produced at least two compounds, probably phenolic in nature, which showed antifungal activity. © 1989, british mycological society. all rights reserved.”

“An exhaustive world revision of all names considered in the genus psilocybe s.l. is presented, of which the hallucinogenic species were treated with special emphasis. seven hundred eighteen names related to psilocybe were found reported in the bibliography, of which only 227 are accepted taxa in psilocybe. the concept of the genus followed here is that of guzman 1983; therefore hypholoma, melanotus, and stropharia were excluded. moreover, 53 species of psathyrella, many times related with psilocybe, were also excluded. the hallucinogenic species are 144, which are distributed in all the continents, of which latin america (including the caribbae), has the top, with more than 50 species. there are only 22 species in canada and the us, while mexico is the country with the higest number in the world, with 53 species. europe has only 16 species, asia 15, africa 4, and australia and eastern islands 19. some psilocybe species are common in several countries or regions, as are p. cubensis and p. subcubensis in all the tropics; p. coprophila in many temperate and tropical regions; p. argentina in several high mountains or in the austral and boreal regions; and p. fimetaria and p. semilanceata in europe, canada, and the us, but unknown in mexico.”

“In co-culture in vitro psilocybe semilanceata invaded moribund cells at the periphery of the cortex of roots of the grass species agrosiis tenuis, poa annua and lolium perenne, and the dicotyledon stellaria media. invasion of many cortical cells of a. tenuis, p. annua and s. media was associated with the formation of papillae in cell walls adjacent to intercellular hyphae and opposite initiated penetration points. this indicated some metabolic activity in the root cells at the time of attempted penetration. colonization of l. perenne was less frequently observed than of the other three species and papilla formation was not observed. p. semilanceata was restricted to the outermost cortical cells of the l. perenne roots by a layer of cells which appeared to contain polyphenolic substances. © 1990, british mycological society. all rights reserved.”

“Psilocybe samuiensis guzman, bandala & allen is described as a new species from koh samui, thailand. it belongs to the hallucinogenic fungi of the section mexicanae guzman. this is the first record of a bluing psilocybe from thailand and the first species of the section outside of the americas. the form and size of the spores, the presence of pleurocystidia and the habit, similar to p. semilanceata (fr. : secr.) kumm. or to p. cordispora heim, are the most important features that define this species.”

“A number of the wild danish mushrooms contain the hallucinogenic agent psilocybin which resembles lsd in many ways. the commonest of these are the ‘liberty cap’ or ‘magic mushrooms’ (psilocybe semilanceata). on the basis of experience from usa and western europa, increase in employment of this mushrooms as a hallucinogenic intoxicant may be anticipated in denmark. the history, epidemiology, botany and pharmacology of the mushroom are reviewed. clinical pictures and treatment are described for: 1) acute poisoning with psilocybin-containing fungi, 2) late sequelae of consumption of psilocybin-containing fungi and 3) poisoning with more poisonous fungi on account of incorrect identification. general practitioners, duty roster doctors, doctors in casualty departments and in acute psychiatric departments should be aware of these problems. intoxication with psilocybin may be confused with panic anxiety or euphoria in persons with mydriasis and other sympathomimetic symptoms. the possibility of more serious mushroom poisoning on account of incorrect identification should be borne in mind.”

“The commonest psychedelic mushroom growing naturally in britain, psilocybe semilanceata, is known in english as the liberty cap. this name, which references an ancient roman social practice, has caused considerable speculation in modern literature. this article provides a conclusive etymology for how a magic mushroom acquired this obscure name.”